KR100856422B1 - Shuffle-based Selective Scrambling Technique for Video Content Protection - Google Patents

Shuffle-based Selective Scrambling Technique for Video Content Protection Download PDF

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KR100856422B1
KR100856422B1 KR1020070042072A KR20070042072A KR100856422B1 KR 100856422 B1 KR100856422 B1 KR 100856422B1 KR 1020070042072 A KR1020070042072 A KR 1020070042072A KR 20070042072 A KR20070042072 A KR 20070042072A KR 100856422 B1 KR100856422 B1 KR 100856422B1
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shuffling
video content
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macroblocks
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이진흥
신상욱
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이진흥
신상욱
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
    • H04N—PICTORIAL COMMUNICATION, e.g. TELEVISION
    • H04N19/00—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals
    • H04N19/85—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using pre-processing or post-processing specially adapted for video compression
    • H04N19/88—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using pre-processing or post-processing specially adapted for video compression involving rearrangement of data among different coding units, e.g. shuffling, interleaving, scrambling or permutation of pixel data or permutation of transform coefficient data among different blocks
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
    • H04N—PICTORIAL COMMUNICATION, e.g. TELEVISION
    • H04N19/00—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals
    • H04N19/10—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using adaptive coding
    • H04N19/134—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using adaptive coding characterised by the element, parameter or criterion affecting or controlling the adaptive coding
    • H04N19/157—Assigned coding mode, i.e. the coding mode being predefined or preselected to be further used for selection of another element or parameter
    • H04N19/159—Prediction type, e.g. intra-frame, inter-frame or bidirectional frame prediction
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
    • H04N—PICTORIAL COMMUNICATION, e.g. TELEVISION
    • H04N19/00—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals
    • H04N19/10—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using adaptive coding
    • H04N19/169—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using adaptive coding characterised by the coding unit, i.e. the structural portion or semantic portion of the video signal being the object or the subject of the adaptive coding
    • H04N19/17—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using adaptive coding characterised by the coding unit, i.e. the structural portion or semantic portion of the video signal being the object or the subject of the adaptive coding the unit being an image region, e.g. an object
    • H04N19/174—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using adaptive coding characterised by the coding unit, i.e. the structural portion or semantic portion of the video signal being the object or the subject of the adaptive coding the unit being an image region, e.g. an object the region being a slice, e.g. a line of blocks or a group of blocks
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
    • H04N—PICTORIAL COMMUNICATION, e.g. TELEVISION
    • H04N19/00—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals
    • H04N19/10—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using adaptive coding
    • H04N19/169—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using adaptive coding characterised by the coding unit, i.e. the structural portion or semantic portion of the video signal being the object or the subject of the adaptive coding
    • H04N19/17—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using adaptive coding characterised by the coding unit, i.e. the structural portion or semantic portion of the video signal being the object or the subject of the adaptive coding the unit being an image region, e.g. an object
    • H04N19/176—Methods or arrangements for coding, decoding, compressing or decompressing digital video signals using adaptive coding characterised by the coding unit, i.e. the structural portion or semantic portion of the video signal being the object or the subject of the adaptive coding the unit being an image region, e.g. an object the region being a block, e.g. a macroblock
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
    • H04N—PICTORIAL COMMUNICATION, e.g. TELEVISION
    • H04N21/00—Selective content distribution, e.g. interactive television or video on demand [VOD]
    • H04N21/40—Client devices specifically adapted for the reception of or interaction with content, e.g. set-top-box [STB]; Operations thereof
    • H04N21/43—Processing of content or additional data, e.g. demultiplexing additional data from a digital video stream; Elementary client operations, e.g. monitoring of home network or synchronising decoder's clock; Client middleware
    • H04N21/44—Processing of video elementary streams, e.g. splicing a video clip retrieved from local storage with an incoming video stream or rendering scenes according to encoded video stream scene graphs
    • H04N21/4408—Processing of video elementary streams, e.g. splicing a video clip retrieved from local storage with an incoming video stream or rendering scenes according to encoded video stream scene graphs involving video stream encryption, e.g. re-encrypting a decrypted video stream for redistribution in a home network

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  • Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
  • Multimedia (AREA)
  • Signal Processing (AREA)
  • Compression Or Coding Systems Of Tv Signals (AREA)
  • Two-Way Televisions, Distribution Of Moving Picture Or The Like (AREA)
  • Television Signal Processing For Recording (AREA)

Abstract

A shuffling based selective scrambling method is provided to reduce computation complexity by using only a shuffling method without an encryption algorithm such as DES or AES which has a large amount of computation, thereby minimizing a processing cost, and maintaining format compliant without increasing the amount of compressed bit streams. A shuffling based selective scrambling method for video contents protection in a method for encrypting compressed video contents includes: a DC shuffling step of shuffling a DC, in the unit of slice, wherein the DC is a first value among coefficients of blocks in an intra frame in which DCT and quantization has terminated; and a block shuffling step of shuffling the blocks which are DC-shuffled in the DC shuffling step in the unit of slice.

Description

비디오 컨텐츠 보호를 위한 셔플링 기반 선택적 스크램블링 기법{shuffling based selective scrambling for video contents protection}   Shuffling based selective scrambling for video contents protection

도1 : 본 발명의 일실시예에 따른 비디오 컨텐츠 보호를 위한 셔플링 기반 선택적 스크램블링 기법의 간단한 흐름도1 is a simple flowchart of a shuffling-based selective scrambling technique for protecting video content according to an embodiment of the present invention.

도2 : 본 발명의 비디오 컨텐츠 보호를 위한 셔플링 기반 선택적 스크램블링 기법을 포함하여 영상을 처리하는 방법에 대한 간략한 흐름도2 is a simplified flowchart illustrating a method of processing an image including a shuffling-based selective scrambling technique for protecting video content of the present invention.

도3 : 본 발명의 DC셔플링단계와 블록셔플링 단계의 수행과정을 나타낸 도Figure 3 is a view showing the performance of the DC shuffling step and the block shuffling step of the present invention

본 발명은 비디오 컨텐츠 보호를 위한 셔플링 기반 선택적 스크램블링 기법에 관한 것으로 인트라 프레임(Intra-Frame)에서 블록의 DC들을 셔플링한 후 다시 블록을 셔플링하고 인터 프레임(Inter-Frame)은 매크로블록(MB)들을 셔플링하는 비디오 컨텐츠 보호를 위한 셔플링 기반 선택적 스크램블링 기법에 관한 것이다.The present invention relates to a shuffling-based selective scrambling technique for video content protection. After shuffling the DCs of a block in an intra-frame, the block is shuffled again and the inter-frame is a macroblock ( A shuffling based selective scrambling technique for video content protection that shuffles MB).

기존에 제안된 많은 선택적 암호화 기법들은 DES나 AES와 같은 암호화 알고리즘을 사용하고 있으나 이는 아무리 선택적으로 적은 양의 영상 신호를 암호화 한 다 하더라도 암호화 알고리즘 자체의 계산량이 매우 크다는 단점을 가진다.Many of the proposed selective encryption schemes use encryption algorithms such as DES and AES, but this method has a disadvantage in that the computational amount of the encryption algorithm itself is very high, even if it selectively encrypts a small amount of video signals.

다른 문제를 가지는 기존의 방법으로는 컨텐츠의 각 프레임을 구성하는 헤더들을 암호화하는 방법이 있다. 하지만 이는 스크램블 된 비트스트림이 오리지널 압축 비트스트림의 신택스를 따르지 않아 복호기에서 포맷 호환성을 만족하지 못하는 단점을 가진다. An existing method having another problem is a method of encrypting headers constituting each frame of content. However, this has a disadvantage in that the scrambled bitstream does not comply with the syntax of the original compressed bitstream and thus does not satisfy format compatibility in the decoder.

또 다른 문제의 예로는 웨이블릿 변환이나 DCT 변환을 통한 주파수 영역에서의 여러 가지 스크램블링 방법이 있다. 그중 DCT 변환의 경우 한 프레임 내의 DC 계수값들만 모아 특정한 테이블을 통해 DC 계수값들을 섞는 방법은 MPEG 코딩 스키마 단계중 DCT 후 스크램블링이 이루어져 압축 효율성을 떨어뜨리는 단점을 가지고 있다.Another example of the problem is various scrambling methods in the frequency domain through wavelet transform or DCT transform. Among them, the DCT transform method collects only DC coefficients within a frame and mixes DC coefficients through a specific table. As a result, scrambling is performed after DCT during the MPEG coding scheme to reduce compression efficiency.

본 발명은 상기의 문제점을 해결하기 위해 안출된 것으로 계산 복잡도를 낮추어 처리비용은 최소화하며 압축 비트 스트림의 양은 증가시키지 않고 포맷 호환성을 유지할 수 있는 셔플링(shuffling)을 이용한 스크램블링 기법을 제공하는 것을 그 목적으로 하고 있다. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been made to solve the above problems, and provides a scrambling technique using shuffling that can reduce the computational complexity to minimize processing cost and maintain format compatibility without increasing the amount of compressed bit streams. It is aimed.

본 발명은 상기의 목적을 달성하기 위해 압축 비디오 컨텐츠를 암호화하는 방법에 있어서 셔플링 기반 선택적 스크램블링 기법으로서, DCT와 양자화 처리가 종료된 인트라 프레임에서 블럭의 계수 중 첫번째 값인 DC를 슬라이스 단위로 셔플링하는 DC셔플링단계와; 상기 DC셔플링단계에서 DC셔플링 된 블럭들을 슬라이스 단위로 셔플링 하는 블럭셔플링 단계;를 포함하여 구성되는 것을 특징으로 하는 비디오 컨텐츠 보호를 위한 셔플링 기반 스크램블링 기법을 기술적 요지로 한다.In order to achieve the above object, the present invention provides a shuffling-based selective scrambling technique in a method of encrypting compressed video content, and shuffles DC, which is the first value among the coefficients of a block, in a slice unit in an intra frame in which quantization processing is completed. A DC shuffling step; The shuffling-based scrambling technique for video content protection, comprising: a shuffling step of shuffling the DC shuffled blocks in units of slices in the DC shuffling step.

바람직한 실시예에 의하면 모션벡터로 이루어진 인터 프레임에 대해 매크로블록을 모아 셔플링 하는 매크로블록셔플링단계;를 더 포함하는 것을 특징으로 한다.According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the macroblock shuffling step of shuffling the macroblocks with respect to the inter frame composed of the motion vectors is further included.

바람직한 실시예에 의하면 상기 매크로블록셔플링단계는 두개의 슬라이스 단위로 매크로블록을 모아 셔플링하게 되는 것을 특징으로 한다.According to a preferred embodiment, the macroblock shuffling step includes shuffling the macroblocks in units of two slices.

본 발명은 실시간 상호작용하는 어플리케이션을 위해 낮은 지연 동작과 저가의 디코딩 장비에 적합한 비교적 간단한 스크램블링 방법이다. 셔플링 기법을 사용할 때에는 비디오 컨텐츠 압축률의 손상을 최소화하여 비트스트림의 비트 오버헤드가 발생하지 않아야 하며, 복호기에서 실행되기 위해서는 암호화되지 않은 압축 비트스트림과 같은 포맷 호환성을 유지해야 한다.The present invention is a relatively simple scrambling method suitable for low delay operation and low cost decoding equipment for real time interactive applications. When using the shuffling technique, it is necessary to minimize the corruption of the video content compression rate so that bit overhead of the bitstream does not occur and to maintain the same format compatibility as the unencrypted compressed bitstream to be executed in the decoder.

본 발명은 데이터의 압축률에 손상을 주지 않기 위해 도1에서와 같이 DCT와 양자화 후 VLC코딩과 함께 이루어지도록 구성하고 있다. 이에 따라 비트스트림이 셔플링 되어도 비트 오버헤드는 발생하지 않는다. 또한 프레임을 구성하는 헤더는 암호화하지 않고 오직 매크로블록과 블록 단위로만 셔플링하여 포맷 호환성을 유지할 수 있다. 셔플링은 자체적으로 압축되는 인트라 프레임과 모션 벡터를 사용하는 인터 프레임으로 나눠어 셔플링 한다.In order to avoid damaging the compression rate of the data, the present invention is configured to perform VLC coding after DCT and quantization as shown in FIG. Accordingly, even if the bitstream is shuffled, no bit overhead occurs. In addition, the header constituting the frame is not encrypted and shuffled only in macroblocks and blocks to maintain format compatibility. Shuffling shuffles into intra frames that use self-compression and inter frames that use motion vectors.

이하에서는 본 발명의 일실시예에 따른 비디오 컨텐츠 보호를 위한 셔플링 기반 스크램블링 방법의 작용과 효과에 대해 상세히 설명하기로 한다.Hereinafter, the operation and effects of the shuffling-based scrambling method for protecting video content according to an embodiment of the present invention will be described in detail.

본 발명의 방법은 도1에 도시된 것과 같이 DC셔플링단계와 블록셔플링단계와 매크로블록셔플링단계를 포함하게 된다. 여기서 상기 DC셔플링단계와 블록셔플링단계는 인트라 프레임에 대해 수행하게 되며 매크로블록셔플링단계는 인터 프레임에 대해 적용하게 된다.The method of the present invention includes a DC shuffling step, a block shuffling step, and a macroblock shuffling step as shown in FIG. In this case, the DC shuffling step and the block shuffling step are performed for an intra frame, and the macroblock shuffling step is applied to an inter frame.

먼저 DC셔플링단계에 대해 설명하기로 한다. 상기 DC셔플링단계는 도2에 도시된 바와 같이 DCT와 양자화를 행한 인트라 프레임에 대해 수행하는 것으로 도3에 도시된 것과 같이 각 블럭의 첫번째 값인 DC값을 셔플링하게 된다. 이때 한번에 셔플링할 블럭들은 하나의 슬라이스 단위로 하게 된다. 상기 슬라이스는 하나 이상의 매크로블럭의 집합으로 구성되나 동일한 수평의 매크로블럭 라인으로 완결되어있는 것을 의미한다.First, the DC shuffling step will be described. The DC shuffling step is performed on the intra frame quantized with the DCT as shown in FIG. 2, and shuffles the DC value, which is the first value of each block, as shown in FIG. At this time, the blocks to be shuffled at one time are in a slice unit. The slice is composed of a set of one or more macroblocks but is completed by the same horizontal macroblock line.

따라서 사용자는 상기 슬라이스 내에 속하는 매크로블럭의 갯수는 적절하게 선택하여 사용하게 되나 본 발명의 실시예에서는 원 영상에서 하나의 라인 전체를 하나의 슬라이스로 사용하게 된다. 그러므로 도3에 도시된 예는 프레임이 23*16의 블럭으로 이루어있고 매크로블럭은 휘도신호를 보유한 4개의 블럭과 색신호를 가진 2개의 블럭으로 이루어지므로 하나의 슬라이스는 23*6=138개의 블럭이 된다.Therefore, the user selects and uses appropriately the number of macroblocks belonging to the slice, but in the embodiment of the present invention, one line is used as one slice in the original image. Therefore, in the example shown in Fig. 3, the frame is composed of 23 * 16 blocks, and the macroblock is composed of 4 blocks having luminance signals and 2 blocks with color signals, so that one slice has 23 * 6 = 138 blocks. do.

각 블럭은 8*8개의 화소로 이루어지므로 모두 64개의 값들로 이루어지며 첫번째 값은 DC라고 부르게 되며 그 후의 값들은 AC1에서 AC63이라고 불리게 된다. 상기 DC에는 블럭에 대한 정보가 포함되며 나머지 AC1에서 AC63까지에는 상기 DC와의 차이값들이 저장된다. Each block is made up of 8 * 8 pixels, so it is made up of 64 values. The first value is called DC, and the subsequent values are called AC1 to AC63. The DC includes information on the block, and the difference values from the DC are stored in the remaining AC1 to AC63.

따라서 상기 DC가 변경되면 블럭전체가 변경되므로 셔플링에 사용된 키를 보유하지 못한 경우에는 상기 셔플링이 이루어진 영상을 전달받아도 원래의 영상을 확인할 수는 없으나 포맷 자체는 그대로 유지되므로 셔플링이 이루어져도 별도의 처리없이 화면에 표시가 가능하다.Therefore, if the DC is changed, the entire block is changed. If the key used for shuffling cannot be held, the original video cannot be confirmed even if the shuffling image is received, but the format itself is maintained. It can also be displayed on the screen without additional processing.

상기 DC셔플링단계에서는 138개의 DC값들을 정해진 키값에 따라 셔플링하여 도3의 오른쪽 테이블과 같은 형태로 구성하게 된다.In the DC shuffling step, the 138 DC values are shuffled according to a predetermined key value to form a shape like the right table of FIG. 3.

다음으로 블록셔플링단계에 대해 설명하기로 한다. 상기 블록셔플링 단계는 DC셔플링단계에서 셔플링된 도3의 오른쪽 테이블을 블럭단위로 다시 셔플링하여 도3의 하측 테이블과 같은 형태로 만들게 된다. 즉 블록셔플링단계에서는 상기 테이블의 각 행 내의 값들은 그대로 유지하고 상하의 행끼리 서로 위치를 바꾸도록 하는 것이다.Next, the block shuffling step will be described. In the block shuffling step, the right table of FIG. 3 shuffled in the DC shuffling step is again shuffled in block units to form the lower table of FIG. That is, in the block shuffling step, values in each row of the table are maintained as they are, and the upper and lower rows are swapped.

상기와 같이 블록셔플링을 수행하게 되면 키를 보유하지 못한 경우 원래의 영상을 얻을 수는 없어도 DC와 AC1내지 AC63으로 이루어진 포맷자체는 그대로 유지되므로 화면에 셔플링된 영상을 표시하는데는 문제가 없다.If block shuffling is performed as above, the original image cannot be obtained when the key is not held, but the format itself consisting of DC and AC1 to AC63 is maintained, so there is no problem in displaying the shuffled image on the screen. .

상기와 같이 두번의 셔플링을 수행하게 되어 원래의 테이블을 찾기 위해서는 138!회의 전탐색 공격을 수행하여야 하므로 안정성이 매우 높아진다.As described above, since two shuffling operations are performed, 138! Pre-scan attacks must be performed to find the original table, and thus stability is very high.

상기와 같이 인트라 프레임에 대한 셔플링을 수행한 후 인터 프레임에 대한 매크로블록셔플링을 수행하게 된다. 상기 매크로블록셔플링은 매크로블록단위로 셔플링하는 것이다. 여기서 상기 두단계와 같이 슬라이스 단위로 셔플링하게 되면 매크로블록이 수직적으로 같은 위치에 존재하여 규칙적으로 섞이게 되므로 이를 방지하기 위해 두개의 슬라이스를 묶어 매크로블록들을 셔플링하도록 한다. 즉 예와 같이 매크로블럭이 23*16개이면 46개의 매크로블록을 모아 셔플링하게 된다.As described above, after performing shuffling on the intra frame, macroblock shuffling on the inter frame is performed. The macroblock shuffling is to shuffle macroblock units. In this case, when the shuffling is performed in the unit of slices as in the above two steps, the macroblocks are vertically present at the same position and are regularly mixed so that the two blocks are bundled to shuffle the macroblocks. That is, if the macroblocks are 23 * 16 as in the example, 46 macroblocks are collected and shuffled.

상기와 같이 매크로블록 단위로 셔플링하게 되므로 헤더가 함께 셔플링 되어 완전한 포맷 호환성을 유지하고 각 매크로 블록을 구성하는 코드워드의 수도 변하지 않아 비트 오버헤드가 발생하지 않는다.Since shuffling is performed in units of macroblocks as described above, headers are shuffled together to maintain complete format compatibility, and the number of codewords constituting each macroblock does not change so that bit overhead does not occur.

본 발명 기법은 계산량이 많은 DES나 AES와 같은 암호 알고리즘을 사용하지 않고 오직 셔플링 기법만을 사용하여 비용을 최소화할 수 있다는 효과가 있다.The present invention has the effect of minimizing the cost by using only shuffling technique without using a cryptographic algorithm such as DES or AES which has a large amount of computation.

이와 같은 본 발명은, 비디오 데이터와 같은 저가용 컨텐츠를 최소한의 비용을 들여 안전하고 효율적으로 보호 할 뿐 아니라 디코더 측에서의 포맷 호환성을 유지하고 암호화 후 데이터 증가를 요구하지 않으므로 멀티미디어 컨텐츠 응용분야에서 널리 사용되어 질 수 있다.The present invention is widely used in multimedia content applications because it not only secures and efficiently protects low-cost content such as video data at a minimum cost and maintains format compatibility on the decoder side and does not require data increase after encryption. Can lose.

Claims (3)

압축 비디오 컨텐츠를 암호화하는 방법에 있어서 셔플링 기반 선택적 스크램블링 기법으로서,As a shuffling-based selective scrambling method for encrypting compressed video content, DCT와 양자화 처리가 종료된 인트라 프레임에서 블럭의 계수 중 첫번째 값인 DC를 슬라이스 단위로 셔플링하는 DC셔플링단계와;A DC shuffling step of shuffling the DC, which is the first value of the coefficients of the block, in units of slices in the intra frame in which the DCT and the quantization processing are completed; 상기 DC셔플링단계에서 DC셔플링 된 블럭들을 슬라이스 단위로 셔플링 하는 블럭셔플링 단계;를 포함하여 구성되는 것을 특징으로 하는 비디오 컨텐츠 보호를 위한 셔플링 기반 스크램블링 기법.A shuffling-based scrambling technique for video content protection, comprising: a block shuffling step of shuffling the DC shuffled blocks by a slice unit in the DC shuffling step. 제1항에 있어서,The method of claim 1, 모션벡터로 이루어진 인터 프레임에 대해 매크로블록을 모아 셔플링 하는 매크로블록셔플링단계;를 더 포함하는 것을 특징으로 하는 비디오 컨텐츠 보호를 위한 셔플링 기반 스크램블링 기법.A shuffling-based scrambling technique for video content protection, further comprising: shuffling macroblocks to shuffle macroblocks for an inter frame composed of a motion vector. 제2항에 있어서, The method of claim 2, 상기 매크로블록셔플링단계는 두개의 슬라이스 단위로 매크로블록을 모아 셔플링하게 되는 것을 특징으로 하는 비디오 컨텐츠 보호를 위한 셔플링 기반 스크램블링 기법.The macroblock shuffling step includes shuffling by gathering macroblocks in units of two slices.
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Citations (3)

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Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US5535275A (en) 1993-07-08 1996-07-09 Sony Corporation Apparatus and method for producing scrambled digital video signals
US6505299B1 (en) 1999-03-01 2003-01-07 Sharp Laboratories Of America, Inc. Digital image scrambling for image coding systems
KR20060038670A (en) * 2004-11-01 2006-05-04 학교법인 성균관대학 Scrambling / Descrambling Method for Intra Encoding / Decoding

Patent Citations (3)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US5535275A (en) 1993-07-08 1996-07-09 Sony Corporation Apparatus and method for producing scrambled digital video signals
US6505299B1 (en) 1999-03-01 2003-01-07 Sharp Laboratories Of America, Inc. Digital image scrambling for image coding systems
KR20060038670A (en) * 2004-11-01 2006-05-04 학교법인 성균관대학 Scrambling / Descrambling Method for Intra Encoding / Decoding

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