US11124778B2 - Process and microorganism for synthesis of adipic acid from carboxylic acids - Google Patents

Process and microorganism for synthesis of adipic acid from carboxylic acids Download PDF

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US11124778B2
US11124778B2 US15/741,484 US201615741484A US11124778B2 US 11124778 B2 US11124778 B2 US 11124778B2 US 201615741484 A US201615741484 A US 201615741484A US 11124778 B2 US11124778 B2 US 11124778B2
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acid
amino acid
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acid sequence
enoate reductase
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Alexander Yakunin
Anna Khusnutdinova
Jeong Chan Joo
Radhakrishnan Mahadevan
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University of Toronto
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    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12N—MICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N9/00—Enzymes; Proenzymes; Compositions thereof; Processes for preparing, activating, inhibiting, separating or purifying enzymes
    • C12N9/0004—Oxidoreductases (1.)
    • C12N9/001—Oxidoreductases (1.) acting on the CH-CH group of donors (1.3)
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12N—MICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N15/00—Mutation or genetic engineering; DNA or RNA concerning genetic engineering, vectors, e.g. plasmids, or their isolation, preparation or purification; Use of hosts therefor
    • C12N15/09—Recombinant DNA-technology
    • C12N15/63—Introduction of foreign genetic material using vectors; Vectors; Use of hosts therefor; Regulation of expression
    • C12N15/70—Vectors or expression systems specially adapted for E. coli
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12P—FERMENTATION OR ENZYME-USING PROCESSES TO SYNTHESISE A DESIRED CHEMICAL COMPOUND OR COMPOSITION OR TO SEPARATE OPTICAL ISOMERS FROM A RACEMIC MIXTURE
    • C12P13/00—Preparation of nitrogen-containing organic compounds
    • C12P13/001—Amines; Imines
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12P—FERMENTATION OR ENZYME-USING PROCESSES TO SYNTHESISE A DESIRED CHEMICAL COMPOUND OR COMPOSITION OR TO SEPARATE OPTICAL ISOMERS FROM A RACEMIC MIXTURE
    • C12P7/00—Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds
    • C12P7/02—Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds containing a hydroxy group
    • C12P7/04—Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds containing a hydroxy group acyclic
    • C12P7/18—Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds containing a hydroxy group acyclic polyhydric
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12P—FERMENTATION OR ENZYME-USING PROCESSES TO SYNTHESISE A DESIRED CHEMICAL COMPOUND OR COMPOSITION OR TO SEPARATE OPTICAL ISOMERS FROM A RACEMIC MIXTURE
    • C12P7/00—Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds
    • C12P7/24—Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds containing a carbonyl group
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12P—FERMENTATION OR ENZYME-USING PROCESSES TO SYNTHESISE A DESIRED CHEMICAL COMPOUND OR COMPOSITION OR TO SEPARATE OPTICAL ISOMERS FROM A RACEMIC MIXTURE
    • C12P7/00—Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds
    • C12P7/40—Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds containing a carboxyl group including Peroxycarboxylic acids
    • C12P7/42—Hydroxy-carboxylic acids
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12P—FERMENTATION OR ENZYME-USING PROCESSES TO SYNTHESISE A DESIRED CHEMICAL COMPOUND OR COMPOSITION OR TO SEPARATE OPTICAL ISOMERS FROM A RACEMIC MIXTURE
    • C12P7/00—Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds
    • C12P7/40—Preparation of oxygen-containing organic compounds containing a carboxyl group including Peroxycarboxylic acids
    • C12P7/44—Polycarboxylic acids
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12Y—ENZYMES
    • C12Y103/00—Oxidoreductases acting on the CH-CH group of donors (1.3)
    • C12Y103/01—Oxidoreductases acting on the CH-CH group of donors (1.3) with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor (1.3.1)
    • C12Y103/01031—2-Enoate reductase (1.3.1.31)
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07K—PEPTIDES
    • C07K2319/00—Fusion polypeptide
    • C07K2319/20—Fusion polypeptide containing a tag with affinity for a non-protein ligand
    • C07K2319/21—Fusion polypeptide containing a tag with affinity for a non-protein ligand containing a His-tag

Definitions

  • the present application includes as part of its description a sequence listing that includes 111 sequences and which was filed with this application in electronic form and this sequence listing is incorporated into the present application in its entirety.
  • This disclosure relates to enzymatic synthesis of polymer precursors from carboxylic acids.
  • Mono and dicarboxylic acids such as adipic, fumaric, glucaric, and succinic acids, diamines (cadaverine, putrescine, hexamethylenediamine), and diols (propanediols and butanediols) are the most common polymer precursors used in condensation polymerization reactions in the chemical industry. Polymeric materials find diverse application in a variety of industries, but most of them are still produced from petroleum.
  • Adipic acid is the most important commercial aliphatic dicarboxylic acid used for the synthesis of Nylon-6,6 polyamide ( ⁇ $6 billion global market). 2.6 Million metric tonnes per year of adipic acid is produced from petroleum-derived benzene but known chemical processes can produce toxic by-products such as nitrous oxide (N 2 O).
  • polymer precursors typically manufactured from petroleum include 1,4-butanediol, 1,6-hexanediol, 6-hydroxyhexanoic and 6-aminocaproic acids.
  • a host microorganism in which exogenous nucleic acids are introduced, wherein said exogenous nucleic acids encode an enzyme having ⁇ , ⁇ -enoate reductase activity, wherein the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or active fragment or homologue thereof.
  • the enzyme comprises amino acids (363) to (382) of SEQ ID NO: 1.
  • the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1.
  • a host microorganism in which exogenous nucleic acids are introduced, wherein said exogenous nucleic acids encode an enzyme having ⁇ , ⁇ -enoate reductase activity, wherein the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 or active fragment or homologue thereof.
  • the enzyme having ⁇ , ⁇ -enoate reductase activity is derived from a microorganism of the genus Bacillus, Clostridium , or Moorella .
  • the microorganism is Bacillus coagulans.
  • the host microorganism is Escherichia coli.
  • Also provided is a process for producing adipic acid comprising culturing a host microorganism as described above under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce adipic acid.
  • adipic acid comprising enzymatically converting a 6-carbon unsaturated dicarboxylic acid to adipic acid using a 2-enoate reductase.
  • the enzyme comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 or 2 or is a fragment or homologue of an enzyme comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or 2.
  • the unsaturated 6-carbon dicarboxylic acid is muconic acid or 2-hexenedioic acid. In one embodiment, the 6-carbon unsaturated dicarboxylic acid is produced from biosynthetic methods.
  • the process comprises culturing a host microorganism as described above under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce adipic acid.
  • the culture medium is substantially aerobic.
  • composition comprising a host microorganism as described above and muconic acid and/or 2-hexenedioic acid.
  • a host microorganism in which exogenous nucleic acids are introduced, wherein said exogenous nucleic acids encode an enzyme having carboxylate reductase activity, wherein the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 36 or active fragment or homologue thereof.
  • the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:36.
  • the host microorganism is Escherichia coli.
  • a host microorganism comprising exogenous nucleic acids encoding an enzyme having carboxylate reductase activity wherein the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 35, 36, 37, 38 or 70 or active fragment or homologue thereof.
  • the host microorganism further co-expresses a gene encoding a phosphopantetheinyl transferase.
  • a host microorganism comprising exogenous nucleic acids encoding an enzyme having aldehyde reductase activity, wherein the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence of NOs:40-52, preferably an amino acid of one of SEQ ID NOs:47, 43, 50, 45, 46 or 52 or active fragment or homologue thereof.
  • a host microorganism comprising exogenous nucleic acids encoding an enzyme having aminotransferase activity, wherein the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence of one of SEQ ID NOs:53-65, preferably one of SEQ ID NOs: 53, 59, 55, 58 or 60 or active fragment or homologue thereof.
  • a process for producing a short chain aldehyde comprising enzymatically converting a carboxylic group of a C5-C8 saturated di-carboxylic acid to an aldehyde using a carboxylate reductase.
  • the carboxylate reductase comprises an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 35, 36, 37, 38 or 70 or active fragment or homologue thereof.
  • the process may further include enzymatically converting the aldehyde group to a hydroxy group using an aldehyde reductase.
  • the aldehyde reductase comprises an amino acid sequence of one of SEQ ID NOs:40-52, preferably an amino acid of one of SEQ ID NOs:47, 43, 50, 45, 46 or 52 or active fragment or homologue thereof.
  • the process can further include enzymatically coverting a second carboxylic acid group to an aldehyde using a carboxylate reductase, and optionally enzymatically converting said aldehyde to a hydroxyl group using an aldehyde reductase.
  • the process further includes enzymatically converting the aldehyde to an amine using an aminotransferase.
  • the aminotransferase comprises an amino acid sequence of one of SEQ ID NOs:53-65, preferably one of SEQ ID NOs: 53, 59, 55, 58 or 60 or active fragment or homologue thereof.
  • the process can further include enzymatically coverting a second carboxylic acid group to an aldehyde using a carboxylate reductase, and optionally enzymatically converting said aldehyde to an amine using an aminotransferase.
  • the di-carboxylic acid may be adipic acid.
  • the aldehyde is 6-oxohexanoic acid and the product of the enzymatic conversion is 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid.
  • the product is 1,6-hexanediol.
  • the product is 6-aminocaproic acid.
  • the product is hexamethylenediamine.
  • the di-carboxylic acid is adipic acid produced by a process described above.
  • Also provided is a process for producing 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid comprising culturing a host microorganism as described above under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid.
  • Also provided is a process for producing 1,6-hexanediol comprising culturing a host microorganism as described above under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 1,6-hexanediol.
  • Also provided is a process for producing 6-aminocaproic acid comprising culturing a host microorganism as described above under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 6-aminocaproic acid.
  • Also provided is a process for producing hexamethylenediamine comprising culturing a host microorganism as described above under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce hexamethylenediamine.
  • Also provided is a process for producing 1,4-butanediol comprising culturing a host microorganism comprising exogenous nucleic acids encoding an enzyme having carboxylate reductase activity wherein the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 36 or active fragment or homologue thereof under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 1,4-butanediol.
  • the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 36.
  • FIG. 1 shows chemocatalytic and biocatalytic hydrogenation of unsaturated six-carbon dicarboxylic acids into adipic acid using 2-enoate reductases (EREDs).
  • EREDs 2-enoate reductases
  • FIG. 2 shows enzymes and cascade enzymatic reactions for the bioconversion of carboxylic acids to 1,6-hexanediol, 6-hydroxyhexanoic and 6-aminocaproic acids.
  • FIG. 3 shows enzymes and cascade enzymatic reactions for the bioconversion of 4-hydroxybutyric acid to 1,4-butanediol and 4-aminobutanol.
  • FIG. 4 shows activity profiles of 25 Old Yellow Enzymes (OYEs; EC 1.6.99.1).
  • the cut-off value for enzyme activity of OYE is 0.05 U/mg protein. 1 mM of substrates, 0.25 mM of NADPH, and 2.5 ⁇ g of proteins were used in the reaction mixture (potassium phosphate 100 mM and pH 7.0). A mixture of cis- and trans-isomers of 2-hexenedioic acid was used as a substrate.
  • FIG. 5 shows SDS-PAGE analysis of the ERED expression in E. coli and protein purification.
  • LC-MS analysis revealed that soluble proteins at 75 kDa in the E lane of EREDCT are hypothetical protein ECD_02181 (74.2 kDA, GenBank: ACT44004.1), heat shock protein 90 (71.4 kDa, ACT42323.1), and molecular chaperone DnaK (69.1 kDa, ACT41916.1) (data not shown).
  • S supernatant (soluble fraction)
  • P pellet (insoluble fraction).
  • FIG. 6 shows time course of the anaerobic biotransformation of 2-hexenedioic acid into adipic acid by the E. coli cells expressing the recombinant EREDs.
  • a mixture of cis- and trans-isomers of 2-hexenedioic acid was used as a substrate, and the results are means from at least two independent determinations. 20 mM 2-hexenedioic acid was used for the biotransformation.
  • FIG. 7 shows complete biotransformation of 2-hexenedioic acid into adipic acid by the E. coli cells expressing the recombinant a) EREDCL and b) EREDMT. 20 mM 2-hexenedioic acid was used for the biotransformation under anaerobic conditions.
  • FIG. 8 shows 24 h anaerobic biotransformation of cis,cis-muconic acid to adipic acid by the E. coli cells expressing the recombinant a) EREDBC, b) EREDCA, c) EREDMT, d) EREDCK and e) EREDCL.
  • the saturated cis,cis-muconic acid solution (0.7 mM) was used for the biotransformation. Substrates and products were detected by LC-MS.
  • FIG. 9 shows UV-visible absorption spectra of purified EREDBC and EREDCA.
  • Purified protein was kept on ice in the presence of air (oxidation, Air lines) or 3 mM NADH (reduction, NADH lines) under argon. Subsequent addition of 6 mM trans-cinnamic acid to the reduced protein resulted in partial re-oxidation (absorbance increase at 450 nm).
  • the spectrophotometric cuvettes show brown-colored preparations of purified EREDBC and EREDCA used in these experiments.
  • FIG. 10 shows in vitro biochemical characterization of purified EREDBC. Reductase activity of EREDBC as a function of a) 2-hexenedioic acid, b) 2-cyclohexen-1-one, c) 3-methyl-2-hexenone, and d) trans-cinnamic acid concentration.
  • FIG. 11 shows in vitro biochemical characterization of purified EREDCA. Reductase activity of EREDCA as a function of a) trans-cinnamic acid concentration or b) 2-hexenedioic acid concentration in the presence of NADH.
  • FIG. 12 shows in vitro biochemical characterization of purified EREDBC and EREDCA. Reductase activity as a function of 2-hexenedioic acid dissolved in a reaction mixture containing isopropanol in the presence of NADH.
  • FIG. 13 shows in vitro oxygen tolerance (residual activity) of purified a) EREDBC and b) EREDCA in the presence of 21% of oxygen.
  • FIG. 14 shows multiple sequence alignment of EREDs studied. Multiple sequence alignment was performed and visualized by Cluster Omega and ESPript 3.0, respectively.
  • FIG. 15 shows whole-cell biotransformation of 2-hexenedioic acid (15 mM) into adipic acid by the E. coli cells expressing recombinant EREDBC (black) and EREDCA (white) under aerobic conditions. The cells were grown and the proteins were expressed anaerobically.
  • FIG. 16 shows substrate screening of purified carboxylate reductases (CARs): A—pimelic acid, suberic acid, azelaic acid (5 mM each); B—crotonic acid, butyric acid, propionic acid (10 mM each); C—benzoic acid (5 mM) and cinnamic acid (10 mM); D—adipic and 4-hydroxybutyric acid (5 mM each). Reductase activity was measured spectrophotometrically by following the oxidation of NADPH depletion at 340 nm.
  • CARs carboxylate reductases
  • FIG. 17 shows saturation with NH 4 Cl for A—BSU31930 in presence of 1 mM NADH, 1 mM pyruvate.
  • B-YOR375C in presence of 1 mM NADPH, 1 mM ketoglutarate.
  • FIG. 18 shows PP33160 double mutant (D222Q/H224N) saturation with NADPH and NADH cofactors in presence of 50 mM formate.
  • FIG. 19 shows in vitro CARs coupled with aldehyde reductase (AR) PP_3370 conversion of 10 mM adipic acid or 10 mM 4-hydroxybutyric acid (12 h). Reaction was supplied with ATP and NADPH—regenerating enzymes, supplied with 50 mM formate and 5 mM polyphosphate. A—graphical view of final product concentration. B—table of conversion efficiencies.
  • FIG. 20 shows in vivo conversion of 10 mM adipic acid or 10 mM 4-hydroxybutyric acid by E. coli expressing CARs.
  • A Time course of final 1,6-hexanediol and 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid formation.
  • B Time course of final 1,4-butanediol formation
  • C Table of conversion efficiencies.
  • enzyme includes proteins produced by a cell capable of catalyzing biochemical reactions. Further, unless context dictates otherwise, as used herein “enzyme” includes protein fragments that retain the relevant catalytic activity, and may include artificial enzymes synthesized to retain the relevant catalytic activity.
  • the present disclosure provides novel enzymes for producing polymer precursors from renewable feedstocks and microorganisms for producing the same.
  • the present disclosure provides novel enzymes capable of reducing C ⁇ C bonds of unsaturated dicarboxylic acids and microorganisms for producing the same.
  • the present disclosure provides enzymes for converting hydroxycarboxylic acids, which may be produced from unsaturated dicarboxylic acids as described herein, to corresponding aldehydes, alcohols, and amines.
  • the present disclosure provides processes for producing cells and organisms for the biochemical synthesis of adipic acid from unsaturated six-carbon dicarboxylic acids using biocatalysts having hydrogenation activity toward ⁇ , ⁇ -enoate.
  • adipic acid can be produced from muconic acid or 2-hexenedioc acid using 2-enoate reductases as illustrated in FIG. 1 .
  • the biochemical synthesis of adipic acid is performed in a substantially aerobic environment.
  • the present disclosure provides processes for the enzymatic conversion of mono- and di-carboxylic acids to corresponding aldehydes, alcohols and amines.
  • the present disclosure provides processes for the enzymatic conversion of short chain saturated mono- and di-carboxylic acids, in one embodiment C3 to C8 saturated mono- and di-carboxylic acids, to corresponding aldehydes, alcohols and amines.
  • the carboxylic acid is a C5 to C7 dicarboxylic acid.
  • the carboxylic acid is a C 6 di-carboxylic acid, in one embodiment adipic acid.
  • the product of the enzymatic conversion of adipic acid may be 1-6-hexanediol, 6-hydroxyhexanoic and 6-aminocarpoic acids, as shown in FIG. 2 .
  • the carboxylic acid is a C3 or C4 monoacid, in one embodiment 4-hydroxybutyric acid (4-hydroxybutanoic acid) as shown in FIG. 3 to a corresponding aldehyde 4-hydroxybutanal, which may be enzymatically converted to 1,4-butanediol or 4-aminobutanol by aldehyde reductases and aminotransferases as described herein
  • the enzymatic conversion of the carboxylic acids to corresponding aldehydes, alcohols and amines employ novel carboxylate reductases (CARs), aldehyde reductases (ARs) and/or aminotransferases (ATs). Also provided are processes for producing cells and organisms for the biochemical synthesis of these aldehydes, alcohols and amines.
  • CARs carboxylate reductases
  • ARs aldehyde reductases
  • ATs aminotransferases
  • processes for producing cells and organisms for the biochemical synthesis of these aldehydes, alcohols and amines are also provided.
  • Bio-based adipic acid has been produced from glucose via sequential chemical reactions i.e., oxidation of glucose into glucaric acid and hydrodeoxygenation of glucaric acid into adipic acid, which can be only catalyzed by chemical catalysts (US20100317823 A1). Bio-based production of adipic acid has been also attempted using metabolic engineering approaches. Industrial microorganisms such as E. coli or Saccharomyces cerevisiae with engineered aromatic amino acid biosynthesis pathway can produce cis,cis-muconic acid from glucose, which is then hydrogenated into adipic acid using chemical catalysts (see e.g. Niu, W., Draths, K. M. & Frost, J. W.
  • adipic acid is produced from muconic acid or 2-hexenedioc acid using 2-enoate reductases (ERED; EC 1.3.1.31).
  • ERED 2-enoate reductases
  • the present disclosure also provides for the biochemical synthesis of aldehydes, alcohols and amines hydroxycarboxylic acids using biocatalysts using novel carboxylate reductases (EC 1.2.1.30), aldehyde reductases (EC 1.1.1.-), and/or aminotransferases (EC 2.6.1.48; EC 2.6.1.19).
  • 1-6-hexanediol is produced from 6-hydroxyhexanal using AR (EC 1.1.1.-).
  • 6-hydroxyhexanoic is produced from 6-oxohexanoic acid using AR (EC 1.1.1.-).
  • 6-aminocarpoic acid is produced from 6-oxohexanoic acid using AT (EC 2.6.1.48; EC 2.6.1.19).
  • carboxylic reductases may be integrated into a 4-hydroxybutric acid producing host.
  • 4 hydroxybuytric acid can be made either from 2-ketoglutarate through decarboxylation to succinate semialdehyde followed by reduction or from 4-aminobutyrate and 2-ketoglutarate via transamination resulting in 4-hydroxybutyrate and L-glutamate [Yim et al., Metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for direct production of 1,4-butanediol. Nat Chem Biol. 2011 May 22; 7(7):445-52.].
  • the expression “derived from” in relation to an enzyme or (poly)peptide denotes that the enzyme or poly(peptide) was isolated from a (micro)organism or that it includes all or a biologically active part of the amino acid sequence of an enzyme or (poly)peptide isolated or characterized from such a (micro)organism.
  • EREDs as provided herein are derived from organisms of the genus Bacillus, Clostridium or Moorella . In one embodiment, the ERED is derived from the species Clostridium acetobutylicum . In one embodiment, the ERED is derived from the genus Bacillus . In one embodiment, the ERED is derived from the species Bacillus coagulans.
  • the ERED comprises or consists of the amino acid of SEQ ID NO: 1 or an active fragment or a homologue thereof.
  • the ERED comprises or consists of the amino acid of SEQ ID NO: 2 or an active fragment or a homologue thereof.
  • the enzyme is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or SEQ ID NO: 2.
  • CARs as provided herein are derived from organisms of the genus Mycobacterium .
  • the CAR is derived from the species Mycobacterium abscessus .
  • the CAR is derived from the species Mycobacterium paratuberculosis.
  • the CAR is derived from the species Mycobacterium smegmatis.
  • the CAR used comprises or consists of an amino acid of one of SEQ ID NOs: 35, 36, 37, 38 or 70 or an active fragment or a homologue thereof.
  • the enzyme is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of one of SEQ ID NOs: 35, 36, 37, 38 or 70.
  • MAB_4714c from M. abscessus DSM444196 has high activity with respect to the conversion of both 4-hydroxybutyric acid and adipic acid to 4-hydroxybutanal and 6-oxohexanoic acid, respectively.
  • the CAR used comprises or consists of an amino acid of SEQ ID NO: 36 or an active fragment or a homologue thereof.
  • the enzyme is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 36.
  • an active fragment or homologue of a CAR as described herein includes the phosphopantetheine binding motif: F-X(2)-L-G-G-D-S-X(2)-A wherein X(2) is any two amino acids.
  • CARs as described herein are co-expressed with a gene encoding a phosphopantetheinyl transferase.
  • Suitable phosphopantetheinyl transferase genes will be known to those of skill in the art.
  • Suitable phosphopantetheinyl transferase genes include e.g. BSU03570 and entD from Bacillus subtilis and E. coli K-12 genomic DNA.
  • ARs as provided herein are derived from organisms of the genus Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus, Streptomyces or Thermotoga .
  • the AR is derived from the species Pseudomonas aeruginosa .
  • the AR is derived from the species Pseudomonas putida .
  • the AR is derived from the species Pseudomonas syringae .
  • the AR is derived from the species Rhodococcus jostii .
  • the AR is derived from the species Streptomyces coelicolor .
  • the AR is derived from the species Thermotoga maritima.
  • the AR comprises or consists of an amino acid of one of SEQ ID NOs: SEQ ID NOs:40-52 or an active fragment or a homologue thereof.
  • the enzyme is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of one of SEQ ID NOs: 40-52.
  • the AR comprises or consists of an amino acid of one of SEQ ID NOs: SEQ ID NOs:47, 43, 50, 45, 46 or 52 or an active fragment or a homologue thereof.
  • the enzyme is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of one of SEQ ID NOs: 47, 43, 50, 45, 46 or 52.
  • an amino acid of SEQ ID NO: 43, 45, 47 or 50 is used for the enzymatic conversion of 6-oxohexanoic acid to 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid.
  • ATs as provided herein are derived from organisms of the genus Escherichia, Sinorhizobium or Streptomyces
  • the AT is derived from the species Escherichia coli .
  • the AT is derived from the species Sinorhizobium meliloti .
  • the AT is derived from the species Streptomyces avermitilis .
  • the AT is derived from the species Sinorhizobium meliloti.
  • the AT comprises or consists of an amino acid of one of SEQ ID NOs: SEQ ID NOs:53-65 or an active fragment or a homologue thereof.
  • the enzyme is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of one of SEQ ID NOs: SEQ ID NOs:53-65
  • the AT comprises or consists of an amino acid of one of SEQ ID NOs: 53, 59, 55, 58 or 60 or an active fragment or a homologue thereof.
  • the enzyme is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of one of SEQ ID NOs: 53, 59, 55, 58 or 60.
  • CARs adenylation domain uses 2 phosphates of ATP for substrate activation, forming acyl-AMP intermediate transferred to reducing domain, where one molecule of NADPH is oxidised for aldehyde release.
  • Application of CARs together with ARs for full reduction of carboxylic group to alcohol needs 2 molecules of NADPH and 1 ATP.
  • Full biotransformation of adipic acid to 1,6-hexanediol will cost in total 4 NADPH and 2 ATP molecules.
  • cofactor dependent enzymes such as oxidoreductases or transferases needs enzymatic systems for regeneration of consumed cofactors to make the system cost-effective.
  • one or more of four enzymes commonly employed in the regeneration of ATP may be used.
  • pyruvate kinase uses phosphoenolpyruvate
  • acetate kinase uses acetylphosphate
  • creatine kinase uses creatine phosphate
  • polyphosphate kinase uses polyphosphate
  • polyphosphate kinases in one embodiment, polyphosphate kinase family II; in one embodiment, for ATP regeneration SMc02148 from Sinorhizobium meliloti and PA3455 from Pseudomonas aeruginosa , may be used.
  • CARs, ARs and amino-donor regenerating enzymes use pyridine nucleotides as cofactors.
  • Several enzymatic methods have been developed for the regeneration of NAD(P)H, such as reduction with formate dehydrogenase, glucose dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and alcohol dehydrogenase.
  • the host microorganism can be engineered to increase co-factor pools of NADH and/or NADPH.
  • the microorganism can be engineered to express a formate dehydrogenase.
  • a formate dehydrogenase of SEQ ID NO:108 or active fragment or homologue thereof are examples of SEQ ID NO:108 or active fragment or homologue thereof.
  • glucosephosphate isomerase (pgi) gene can be deleted to divert flux towards the pentose phosphate pathway to increase NADPH pools.
  • Other strategies may involve switching the endogenous NADH-dependent glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) to the host E. coli strain with an exogenous NADPH-dependent glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase derived from Clostridium acetobutylicum .
  • GPDH NADH-dependent glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
  • an NADH kinase Pos5P
  • NADH pools can be increased by limiting competing pathways though the deletion of genes encoding NADH-dependent enzymes, including but not limited to: alcohol dehydrogenase (adhE), lactate dehydrogenase (IdhA) and pyruvate-formate lyase (pflB).
  • adhE alcohol dehydrogenase
  • IdhA lactate dehydrogenase
  • pflB pyruvate-formate lyase
  • a host microorganism can be engineered to increase the production of alanine and/or glutamate.
  • these host microorganism may be engineered to express a glutamate dehydrogenase or alanine dehydrogenase.
  • Two enzymes were found suitable for this purposes—YOR375C, NADPH-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae , and BSU31930, NADH-dependent alanine dehydrogenase from Bacillus subtilis.
  • a homologue of each enzyme refers to a protein which has an identity of at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95% or at least 99% with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO corresponding to the enzyme and retains the activity of the enzyme.
  • Algorithms for determining sequence identity are publicly available and include e.g. BLAST available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
  • NCBI National Center for Biotechnology Information
  • a person skilled in the art can obtain a polynucleotide encoding a homologue of each enzyme by appropriately introducing substitution, deletion, insertion, and/or addition to the DNA of the enzyme which is composed of a nucleotide sequence disclosed herein, using methods such as site-specific mutagenesis (Nucleic Acid Res. 10, pp. 6487 (1982), Methods in Enzymol. 100, pp. 448 (1983), Molecular Cloning 2nd Edt., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1989), PCR A Practical Approach IRL Press pp. 200 (1991)).
  • the polynucleotide encoding a homologue of each enzyme can be introduced and expressed in a host to obtain the homologue.
  • Enzymes as described herein may be produced by a non-naturally occurring microorganism.
  • microorganism is intended to mean any organism that exists as a microscopic cell and encompasses prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells or organisms having a microscopic size and includes bacteria, archaea and eubacteria of all species as well as eukaryotic microorganisms such as yeast and fungi. The term also includes cell cultures of any species that can be cultured for the production of a biochemical.
  • non-naturally occurring when used in reference to a microorganism refers to a microorganism that has at least one genetic alteration not normally found in a naturally occurring strain of the referenced species, including wild-type strains of the referenced species.
  • Genetic alterations include, for example, modifications introducing expressible nucleic acids encoding metabolic polypeptides, other nucleic acid additions, nucleic acid deletions and/or other functional disruption of the microbial genetic material.
  • modifications include, for example, coding regions and functional fragments thereof, for heterologous, homologous or both heterologous and homologous polypeptides for the referenced species.
  • Additional modifications include, for example, non-coding regulatory regions in which the modifications alter expression of a gene or operon.
  • endogenous refers to a referenced molecule or activity that originates in a host microorganism.
  • the term when used in reference to expression of an encoding nucleic acid refers to expression of an encoding nucleic acid contained within the microorganism.
  • the term “exogenous” refers to molecules or activity that is introduced into a host microorganism.
  • the molecule can be introduced, for example, by introduction of an encoding nucleic acid into the host genetic material such as by integration into a host chromosome or as non-chromosomal genetic material such as a plasmid.
  • introduction of an encoding nucleic acid refers to introduction of the encoding nucleic acid in an expressible form into the microorganism.
  • the term refers to an activity that is introduced into a reference host organism.
  • the source can be, for example, an encoding nucleic acid that expresses the activity following introduction into the host microorganism.
  • heterologous refers to a molecule or activity derived from a source other than the referenced species whereas “homologous” refers to a molecule or activity derived from the host microbial organism. Accordingly, exogenous expression of an encoding nucleic acid can use either or both a heterologous or homologous encoding nucleic acid.
  • the term “isolated” when used in reference to a microorganism refers to an organism that is substantially free of at least one component as the referenced microorganism is found in nature.
  • the term includes a microorganism that is removed from some or all components as it is found in its natural environment and includes substantially pure microbes and microbes cultured in a medium that is non-naturally occurring.
  • operably linked refers to a linkage between one or more expression control sequences and the coding region in a polynucleotide to be expressed in such a way that expression is achieved under conditions compatible with the expression control sequence.
  • the microorganism used in a process as described herein is a microorganism which is genetically modified so as to contain a nucleic acid molecule encoding a 2-enoate reductase as described herein.
  • Nucleic acid molecules encoding enzymes as described herein can be used alone or as part of a vector.
  • the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or active fragment or homologue thereof. In one embodiment, the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO. 1. In one aspect, the enzyme comprises amino acids (363) to (382) of SEQ ID NO: 1. In one embodiment, the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 or active fragment or homologue thereof. In one embodiment, the enzyme comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO. 2. In another aspect, the enzyme comprises amino acids (363) to (382) of SEQ ID NO: 2.
  • the enzyme comprises an 4Fe-4S cluster: CX 1 SCX 2 EGCMGRX 3 QX 4 YSX 5 LX 6 C wherein X 1 is any amino acid, preferably a hydrophobic amino acid, preferably leucine or isoleucine, preferably leucine; X 2 is any amino acid, preferably a polar amino acid, preferably histidine or glutamine, preferably histidine; X 3 is any amino acid, preferably a hydrophobic amino acid preferably isoleucine or valine, preferably isoleucine; X 4 is any amino acid, preferably glutamic acid or histidine, preferably glutamic acid; X 5 is any amino acid, preferably a polar amino acid, preferably serine or methionine, preferably serine; X 6 is any amino acid, preferably glycine or asparagine, preferably glycine.
  • X 1 is any amino acid, preferably a hydrophobic amino acid, preferably leucine or iso
  • the enzyme comprises or substantially comprises (>80%, >85%, >90%, >95% or >99%) of the consensus sequence as between SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO: 2.
  • the enzyme is substantially aerostable, which in one embodiment comprises an enzyme that retains at least 20, at least 25 or at least 30% of its activity when stored in air for 3 days.
  • the nucleic acid molecules can further include expression control sequences operably linked to the polynucleotide comprised in the nucleic acid molecule. These expression control sequences may be suited to ensure transcription and synthesis of a translatable RNA in bacteria or fungi. Expression refers to the transcription of the heterologous DNA sequence, preferably into a translatable mRNA. Regulatory elements ensuring expression in bacteria, yeasts or fungi, cyanobacteria and algae are well known to those skilled in the art and encompass promoters, enhancers, termination signals, targeting signals and the like. Promoters for use in connection with the nucleic acid molecule may be homologous or heterologous with regard to its origin and/or with regard to the gene to be expressed. Suitable promoters are for instance promoters which lend themselves to constitutive expression. However, promoters which are only activated at a point in time determined by external influences can also be used. Artificial and/or chemically inducible promoters may be used.
  • the polynucleotide introduced into a microorganism is expressed so as to lead to the production of a polypeptide having the enzymatic activity as described herein.
  • Expression vectors have been widely described in the literature. Generally, they contain not only a selection marker gene and a replication-origin ensuring replication in the host selected, but also a bacterial or viral promoter, and in most cases a termination signal for transcription. Between the promoter and the termination signal there is in general at least one restriction site or a polylinker which enables the insertion of a coding DNA sequence.
  • the DNA sequence naturally controlling the transcription of the corresponding gene can be used as the promoter sequence, if it is active in the selected host organism. However, this sequence can also be exchanged for other promoter sequences. It is possible to use promoters ensuring constitutive expression of the gene and inducible promoters which permit a deliberate control of the expression of the gene.
  • Inducible promoters which may provide higher polypeptide yields than constitutive promoters can be used.
  • a two-stage process is used: the host cells are first cultured under optimum conditions up to a relatively high cell density; and transcription is then induced.
  • Termination signals for transcription are also described in the literature.
  • point mutations are introduced at positions at which a modification of the amino acid sequence increases the catalytic activity or stability of the enzyme.
  • the substrate preference of enzymes can also be changed using directed evolution. Enhancement in specific activity can be accomplished by using random mutagenesis over the whole length of the protein (Sheryl B. Rubin-Pitel et al. (2007), “Chapter 3: Directed Evolution Tools in Bioproduct and Bioprocess Development” in Bioprocessing for Value - Added Products from Renewable Resources , S.-T. Yang, Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.) Protein solubility can be increased by site-directed mutagenesis to make hydrophobic to hydrophilic mutations on the protein surface (Saul R. Trevino et al. Journal of Molecular Biology 366 (2007), 449-460).
  • genes can be subjected to codon optimization with techniques well known in the art to achieve optimized expression of the proteins.
  • nucleic acid sequence to remove or include a targeting sequence can be incorporated into an exogenous nucleic acid sequence to impart desirable properties.
  • both nucleic acids may be inserted, for example, into one expression vector or into separate expression vectors.
  • the encoding nucleic acids can be operationally linked to a common expression control sequence or linked to different expression control sequences, such as one inducible promoter and one constitutive promoter.
  • a non-naturally occurring microorganism that produces a pathway intermediate or product may be used in combination with another organism (or other organisms) expressing downstream or upstream pathway enzyme(s) to produce a desired product.
  • another organism or other organisms
  • an engineered organism can be used to produce and accumulate adipic acid.
  • the adipic acid can then be used as a substrate for another engineered organism expressing one or more of the pathway genes to convert adipic acid to 1,6-hexanediol, 6-hydroxyhexanoic or 6-aminocaproic acids.
  • Host microorganisms can be selected from, and the non-naturally occurring microorganisms generated in, for example, bacteria, yeast, fungus or any of a variety of other microorganisms applicable to fermentation processes.
  • Host microorganisms can be selected from, and the non-naturally occurring microorganisms generated in, for example, bacteria, yeast, fungus or any of a variety of other microorganisms may be used as a host organism.
  • Suitable host microorganisms can be selected for example from Bacteria phylum like Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinocacteria, Thermotogae, Bacteroides, Cyanobacteria.
  • Archaea phyla Euryarchaeota Fungi phylum Ascomycota and Zygomycota or Eukariota phylum like Chlorophyta, Dinoflagellata, Bacillariophyta, Eustigmatophyceae, Haptophyta and Heteromonyphyta.
  • Suitable bacterial and archaeal species include:
  • Escherichia coli Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus brevis, Bacillus pumilus, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Zymomonas mobilis, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Clostridium butylicum, Clostridium kluyveri, Clostridium autoethanogenum, Moorella thermoacetica, Clostridium aceticum, Clostridium beijerinckii, Clostridium ljungdahlii, Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium tyrobutyricum, Clostridium tetanomorphum, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium propionicum, Clostridium aminobutyricum, Clostridium subtermina
  • Suitable yeasts or fungi include: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Saccharomycopsis crataegensis, Kluyveromyces lactis, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus niger, Pichia stipitis, Pichia pastoris, Rhizopus arrhizus, Rhizopus oryzae, Yarrowia lipolytica, Issatchenkia orientalis, Issatchenkia occidentalis, Candida lambica, Candida sorboxylosa, Candida zemplinina, Candida geochares, Pichia membranifaciens, Zygosaccharomyces kombuchaensis, Candida sorbosivorans, Candida vanderwaltii, Candida sorbophila, Zygosaccharomyces bisporus, Zygosaccharomyces lentus, Saccharomy
  • the host microorganism is an aerobic organism that can express an enzyme as described herein in an aerobic environment.
  • Suitable cyanobacteria include: Acaryochloris marina MBIC11017, Anabaena sp. PCC 7120, Anabaena variabilis ATCC 29413 , Agmenellum quadruplicatum, Chlorobium tepidum TLS, Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142 , Gloeobacter violaceus PCC 7421 , Microcystis aeruginosa NIES-843, Nostoc punctiforme ATCC 29133 , Prochlorococcus marinus MED4 , Prochlorococcus marinus MIT9313 , Prochlorococcus marinus SS120 , Prochlorococcus marinus str.
  • Suitable algae include: Botryococcus braunii, Chlamydomonas reinhardii, Chlorella sp., Crypthecodinium cohnii, Cylindrotheca sp., Dunaliella primolecta, Isochrysis sp., Monallanthus salina, Nannochloris sp., Nannochloropsis sp., Neochloris oleoabundans, Nitzschia sp., Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Schizochytrium sp., Tetraselmis sueica.
  • the host microorganism is an aerobic organism that can express an enzyme having ⁇ , ⁇ -enoate reductase activity in an aerobic environment. Expression of such an enzyme in an aerobic or a microaerobic environment may allow improved growth rate leading to improved productivity. Furthermore, this enzyme can be used to make chemicals from compounds that require aerobic biosynthesis pathways.
  • E. coli is a particularly useful host organism since it is a well characterized microorganism suitable for genetic engineering.
  • Methods for constructing and testing the expression levels of a non-naturally occurring host can be performed by recombinant and detection methods, with techniques which are well known in the art. Such methods can be found described in, for example, Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual , Third Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York (2001); and Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology , John Wiley and Sons, Baltimore, Md. (1999). Specific methods for constructing and testing the expression levels of an E. coli host that produces one or more of the enzymes described herein are provided in the Examples.
  • exogenous nucleic acid When reference is made to more than one exogenous nucleic acid being included in a microorganism, it is to be understood that this refers to the referenced encoding nucleic acids or biochemical activities and not the number of separate nucleic acids introduced into the host organism. As will be understood by those of skill in the art, such exogenous nucleic acids may be introduced into the host organism on separate nucleic acid molecules, on polycistronic nucleic acid molecules, or a combination thereof.
  • the two or more exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced as a single nucleic acid, for example, on a single plasmid, on separate plasmids, can be integrated into the host chromosome at a single site or multiple sites, and still be considered as two or more exogenous nucleic acids.
  • nucleic acids for the pathway enzyme(s) described can be introduced into the host organism.
  • the microorganism may be engineered such that the gene encoding the enzyme is overexpressed and/or genes encoding enzymes or proteins of competing pathways may be deleted.
  • methods are carried out with live cells.
  • the process is carried out in vitro with lysed cells or with partially or completely purified enzyme or with permeabilized cells.
  • the method is carried out in vitro and the enzyme is immobilized. Means and methods for immobilizing enzymes on different supports are well-known to the person skilled in the art.
  • Such in vitro process can be similar to the processes described in (1) Dudley, Q. M., Karim, A. S., and Jewett, M. C. 2014. Cell-Free Metabolic Engineering: Biomanufacturing beyond the cell. Biotechnology Journal. 10:69-82, 2) Zhang Y-HP*. 2014. Production of biofuels and biochemicals by in vitro synthetic biosystems: opportunities and challenges. Biotechnology Advances, Epub, DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2014.10.009)
  • the methods are carried out in culture, with the host organism, producing the enzyme(s).
  • the growth medium can include, for example, any inorganic or organic carbon source which can supply a source of carbohydrates or other precursors that the host organisms can naturally use or is engineered to use.
  • the host organism is provided with a feedstock of sugars.
  • Such sources include, for example, sugars such as glucose, xylose, galactose, mannose, fructose and starch.
  • Glucose can be obtained from various carbohydrate-containing sources including conventional biorenewable sources such as corn (maize), wheat, potato, cassava and rice as well as alternative sources such as energy crops, plant biomass, agricultural wastes, forestry residues, sugar processing residues and plant-derived household wastes.
  • conventional biorenewable sources such as corn (maize), wheat, potato, cassava and rice as well as alternative sources such as energy crops, plant biomass, agricultural wastes, forestry residues, sugar processing residues and plant-derived household wastes.
  • Sources of carbohydrate include renewable feedstocks and biomass, e.g. cellulosic biomass, hemicellulosic biomass and lignin feedstocks.
  • biomass feedstocks contain, for example, carbohydrate substrates that can yield through biosynthetic pathways, unsaturated six-carbon dicarboxylic acids, muconic acid and 2-hexendioic acid.
  • the enzyme can be incorporated in host microbes capable of using other substrates such as methanol, syngas, glycerol, CO2 and producing muconic acid and 2-hexenedioic acid.
  • Other renewable feedstocks and biomass will be known to persons of skill in the art.
  • Biorenewable feedstock sources that may be used in accordance with the present invention include any renewable organic matter that includes a source of carbohydrates. These include, for example, grasses, trees (hardwood and softwood), vegetation and crop residues. Other sources can include, for example, organic waste materials (e.g., spent paper, green waste, municipal waste, etc.). Suitable carbohydrates, including glucose, may be isolated from biorenewable materials using methods that are known in the art.
  • the processes as provided may be carried out in a fermenter.
  • the engineered organism can be cultivated in a variety of reactors systems, and the process can be carried out in different modes of operations.
  • the most commonly used bioreactor is a stirred tank bioreactor or aerated fermenter.
  • the fermenter is equipped with sterile air supply, the mixing of bubble dispersion is achieved by mechanical agitation, and the temperature may be maintained using a jacket or coil that circulates steam or cooling water.
  • high height/diameter ratio >3 may be chosen to increase the contact time between the bubbles and liquid phase.
  • Other variations of bioreactors are airlift bioreactor where mixing is achieved without mechanical agitation, and packed bed or fluidized bed bioreactors which are used when the biocatalyst is immobilized.
  • the fermentation can be carried out in three different modes: batch, fed-batch and continuous mode.
  • a standard batch bioreactor is considered a “closed” system.
  • batch mode all the media components are added to bioreactor while ensuring the sterility.
  • the bioreactor is inoculated with an appropriate inoculum and the fermentation is allowed to proceed until the end without any changes to the medium, i.e., without feeding of any additional components.
  • Components such as acid and/or base can, however, be added to maintain the pH, and air/oxygen can be added to maintain the dissolved oxygen levels.
  • batch fermentation biomass and product concentration change over time until the fermentation is complete.
  • the cells undergo classical lag-phase, exponential growth-phase, stationary phase growth, followed by death phase.
  • a variation of the batch mode is fed-batch mode where the nutrients including the carbon source is added to the fermenter as the process progresses.
  • continuous mode of fermentation can also be used.
  • a continuous system is considered to be “open” system in contrast to the batch mode.
  • defined production medium is added continuously to the bioreactor and equal amounts of bioreactor contents are removed at the same rate.
  • Continuous operation can be carried out in a chemostat where the vessel contents, including the cells are removed, or in a bioreactor that uses perfusion culture, which allows recycling of the viable cells back to the bioreactor, allowing high cell densities to be achieved.
  • the organisms can be grown in any suitable medium for growth such as Luria-Bertani broth, Terrific broth or yeast extract-peptone-dextrose (YPD) medium.
  • suitable medium for growth such as Luria-Bertani broth, Terrific broth or yeast extract-peptone-dextrose (YPD) medium.
  • synthetic minimal media such as M9 minimal medium, yeast synthetic minimal medium, yeast nitrogen base, BG-11, or variations thereof can be used.
  • a suitable minimal medium may contain at least one carbon source, at least one nitrogen source, salts, cofactors, buffers, and other components required to grow and maintain the recombinant microorganism.
  • the carbon source can be one or more of the carbon sources described previously, the nitrogen source can be an ammonium salt or nitrate salt including but not limited to (NH 4 )2SO 4 , NH 4 Cl, (NH 4 )2HPO 4 , NH 4 OH, KNO 3 , NaNO 3 .
  • the medium may be supplemented with complex or organic nitrogen sources such as urea, yeast extract, casamino acids, peptone, tryptone, soy flour, corn steep liquor, or casein hydrolysate.
  • the minimal medium can be supplied with trace metals including but not limited to H 3 BO 3 , MnCl 2 , ZnSO 4 , Na 2 MoO 4 , CuSO 4 , Co(NO 3 ) 2 , CuCl 2 , ZnCl 2 , CoCl 2 , FeCl 3 , KI.
  • trace metals including but not limited to H 3 BO 3 , MnCl 2 , ZnSO 4 , Na 2 MoO 4 , CuSO 4 , Co(NO 3 ) 2 , CuCl 2 , ZnCl 2 , CoCl 2 , FeCl 3 , KI.
  • the minimal medium may be supplemented with vitamins and/or non-vitamin compounds including but not limited to biotin, pantothanate, folic acid, inositol, nicotinic acid, p-aminobenzoic acid, pyridoxine, riboflavin, thiamine, cyanocobalamin, citric acid, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), ferric ammonium citrate.
  • vitamins and/or non-vitamin compounds including but not limited to biotin, pantothanate, folic acid, inositol, nicotinic acid, p-aminobenzoic acid, pyridoxine, riboflavin, thiamine, cyanocobalamin, citric acid, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), ferric ammonium citrate.
  • the medium can be supplied by carbon dioxide either by direct sparging or in the form of NaHCO 3 , or Na 2 CO 3 .
  • the processes are conducted under substantially aerobic conditions.
  • substantially aerobic when used in reference to a culture or growth condition means, in one embodiment, that the amount of oxygen is equal to or greater than about 10% of saturation for dissolved oxygen in liquid media.
  • the term includes sealed chambers of liquid or solid medium maintained with an atmosphere greater than about 1% oxygen.
  • the processes as described herein may suitably be performed at a pH range of between about 4 to about 8.
  • the temperature at which the methods as described herein are performed is not particularly restricted, generally, the processes as described herein may be performed at temperatures of between about 20° C. and about 60° C.
  • an effective amount of enzyme to be used per quantity of substrate and, in one embodiment, the effective amount is not particularly restricted.
  • the present inventors have found that an enzyme ratio of 1 ⁇ g of enzyme per 200 ⁇ g of substrate effective, although higher (e.g. 1:100) and lower (e.g. 1:1000) ratios of enzyme to substrate may be effective and an appropriate ratio can be readily determined by a person of skill in the art in relation to the specific reaction conditions.
  • the amount of product in the medium can be determined using methods known in the art such as High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas Chromatography (GC), Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS).
  • HPLC High Performance Liquid Chromatography
  • GC Gas Chromatography
  • LC-MS Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
  • GC-MS Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
  • processes as disclosed herein further include purifying the product of the processes products of the methods described herein.
  • Such methods of purification are known to those of skill in the art and include e.g. by filtration, distillation or evaporation. Isolation of compound from the fermentation broth depends on the final purity of the compound required.
  • the separation techniques may include: centrifugation, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nano-filtration, evaporation, crystallization, distillation, and ion-exchange.
  • Typical downstream processing operation would include a series of processes including separation of cells using centrifugation or microfiltration, removal of additional solids in the broth using ultrafiltration, removal of salts from the broth using nanofiltration, ion-exchange, or evaporative crystallization, and finally purification of adipic acid using distillation.
  • Adipic acid has various uses as will be known to those of skill in the art.
  • the majority of adipic acid produced is used as a monomer for the production of nylon by a polycondensation reaction with hexamethylene diamine forming 6,6-nylon.
  • Other major applications also involve polymers: it is a monomer for production of polyurethane and its esters are used as plasticizers, especially in polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
  • the polymer precursors 1,4-butanediol, 1,6-hexanediol, 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid and 6-aminocaproic acid have diverse industrial uses.
  • 1,4-Butanediol is used industrially as a solvent and in the manufacture of some plastics, elastic fibers and polyurethanes. 1,4-butanediol is also used for the synthesis of ⁇ -butyrolactone (GBL) and in the presence of phosphoric acid and high temperature, it dehydrates to the solvent tetrahydrofuran.
  • GBL ⁇ -butyrolactone
  • 1,6-Hexanediol is widely used for industrial polyester and polyurethane production. It is also an intermediate to acrylics, adhesives, and dyestuffs.
  • Aminocaproic acid is an intermediate in the polymerization of Nylon-6, where it is formed by ring-opening hydrolysis of caprolactam. It also finds uses in pharmaceutical and applications.
  • OYEs Old Yellow Enzymes
  • EREDs 2-enoate reductases
  • E. coli transformants were cultured aerobically at 37° C. in Terrific Broth (TB) medium (1 L) supplemented with 100 ⁇ g/mL ampicillin until the optical density (OD 600 nm) reached 0.6-0.8.
  • TB Terrific Broth
  • cultures were transferred to tightly-closed flasks with a magnetic stir bar and protein expression was induced with 0.4 mM IPTG after a 30 min-anaerobic pre-cultivation in the closed flasks.
  • Cultures were also incubated with DMSO (50 mM) as the final electron acceptor for 15-19 h at room temperature on a magnetic stir plate.
  • E. coli cells were harvested by centrifugation (9,000 g) and the cell pellets were stored in liquid N 2 protein purification. For the whole-cell biotransformation cells were used immediately.
  • Protein purification was performed in an anaerobic glove-box (Coy Laboratory Products, Grass Lake, Mich., USA) under an atmosphere of 80% N 2 , 10% H 2 , and 10% CO 2 . All buffers were degassed and sparged with Ar before use. Cell pellets were resuspended in lysis buffer (400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% glycerol, 5 mM imidazole, 0.05% Tween-20, 1 mg/mL lysozyme, 3 U/mL benzonase, 0.5 mM EDTA, and 1 mM DTT) and incubated at room temperature for 30 min.
  • lysis buffer 400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% glycerol, 5 mM imidazole, 0.05% Tween-20, 1 mg/mL lysozyme, 3 U/mL benzonase,
  • E. coli BL21-Gold (DE3) strain (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif., USA).
  • E. coli transformants were cultured at 37° C. in TB medium supplemented with 100 ⁇ g/mL of ampicillin until the OD at 600 nm reached 0.6-0.8. Protein expression was induced with 0.4 mM IPTG and the E. coli cells were grown overnight at 16° C.
  • coli cells were harvested by centrifugation (9,000 g) and the pellets were resuspended in lysis buffer (400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% glycerol, and 5 mM imidazole) followed by sonication to break cells. Lysates were cleared by centrifugation and the supernatant was incubated with Ni-affinity resin at 4° C. for 30 min.
  • lysis buffer 400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% glycerol, and 5 mM imidazole
  • the resin was then washed with washing buffer (400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% Glycerol, and 30 mM imidazole) and eluted with elution buffer (400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% Glycerol, and 250 mM imidazole).
  • washing buffer 400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% Glycerol, and 30 mM imidazole
  • elution buffer 400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% Glycerol, and 250 mM imidazole.
  • Purified OYEs were frozen in liquid N 2 and stored at ⁇ 80° C.
  • OYEs do not contain an iron-sulfur cluster, but they can catalyze hydrogenation of activated alkenes by hydride transfer from NAD(P)H to FMN in a similar way to EREDs.
  • 25 putative OYE genes (Table 1) were cloned based on the Pfam domain of the FMN oxidoreductase family PF00724. Purified OYEs were screened for hydrogenation activity against acrolein, 2-cyclohexn-1-one, cis,cis-muconic acid, trans,trans-muconic acid, and 2-hexendioic acid.
  • tomato str. ND 0.18 DC3000 PS2358 19 AAO55915.1 Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato str. ND 0.13 DC3000 PS4251 20 AAO57808.1 Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato str. ND 0.09 DC3000 PSPH1060 21 AAZ36642.1 Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola ND 0.14 1448A PSPH1370 22 AAZ33328.1 Pseudomonas syringae pv.
  • OYE activity of purified proteins was tested with typical substrates of OYEs, i.e., acrolein and 2-cyclohexen-1-one, and 21 out of 25 proteins showed OYE activity (Table 1). However, no purified OYEs could hydrogenate 2-hexenedioic acid or muconic acid. Similarly, whole-cell biotransformations with three E. coli strains over-expressing OYEs: EC5625 (SEQ ID NO: 10) from E. coli (YST4373 (SEQ ID NO: 31) from S.
  • EREDCT ERED from C. tyrobutyricum
  • EREDCT EREDCT, SEQ ID NO: 5 CAA71086.1
  • EREDCT shows 50 ⁇ 82% sequence identity to EREDs ( FIG. 14 ) from Bacillus coagulans 36D1 (EREDBC, SEQ ID NO: 1), C. acetobutylicum (EREDCA, SEQ ID NO: 2), C. kluveri (EREDCK, SEQ ID NO: 3), C.
  • EREDCL ljungdahlii
  • EREDMT Moorella thermoacetica
  • EREDCT inactivity of EREDCT can be attributed to its low expression in E. coli ( FIG. 5 b ), which can be improved using the established methods of codon optimization for recombinant protein expression in E. coli .
  • the studied EREDCT is known to be an oxygen sensitive enzyme (Bühler, M. & Simon, H. On the kinetics and mechanism of enoate reductase. Hoppe - Seyler's Zeitschrift fur Physio strige Chemie 363, 609-625 (1982)), for anaerobically grown EREDBC (SEQ ID NO: 1) and EREDCA (SEQ ID NO: 2) aerobic biotransformation of 2-hexenedioic acid (15 mM) was performed.
  • trans,trans-muconic acid 2-hexenedioic acid
  • 3-hexenedioic acid-like compound with m/z 143.0319 ( FIGS. 8 d and 8 e ).
  • the formation of trans,trans-muconic acid from a cis,cis-isomer suggests the presence of cis-trans isomerase activity in EREDCK and EREDCL.
  • the 3-hexenedioic acid-like compound appears to be an inefficient substrate for these EREDS. This is similar to the mutated 2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductases from E.
  • EREDCA Enzymatic assays under anaerobic conditions revealed that purified EREDCA has high hydrogenation activity against trans-cinnamic acid (3.5 U/mg protein) and low activity with trans-2-butenoic acid (0.008 U/mg protein).
  • EREDCA exhibited substrate inhibition by trans-cinnamic acid at substrate concentrations higher than 0.5 mM with an inhibition constant (K i ) of 1.2 mM ( FIG. 11 a ).
  • Purified EREDCA was also active against 2-hexenedioic acid (up to 0.05 U/mg protein), but showed no saturation by this substrate in the concentration range from 4 to 28 mM ( FIG. 11 b ).
  • EREDBC exhibited significant reductase activity against 2-hexenedioic acid (0.09 U/mg protein), 2-cyclohexen-1-one (0.08 U/mg protein), 3-methyl-2-cyclohexenone (0.13 U/mg protein), and trans-cinnamic acid (0.39 U/mg protein) and detectable activity against trans-2-butenoic acid (crotonic acid, 0.036 U/mg protein) and acrolein (0.037 U/mg protein).
  • EREDBC had a broad substrate specificity compared to EREDCA (Table 3).
  • a biocompatible palladium catalyst was proposed for non-enzymatic hydrogenation of alkene metabolites in growth media including cinnamic acid variants and dicarboxylic acids.
  • EREDBC exhibited a comparable substrate spectrum to that of the palladium catalyst (Sirasani, G., Tong, L. & Balskus, E. P.
  • a biocompatible alkene hydrogenation merges organic synthesis with microbial metabolism.
  • Angew. Chem. Int. Ed . (2014) providing evidence that EREDBC can be a good substitute for alkene hydrogenation in microbial production of biochemicals.
  • EREDBC Kinetic studies of purified EREDBC were performed using 2-hexenedioic acid, 2-cyclohexen-1-one, 3-methyl-2-cyclohexenone, and trans-cinnamic acid as substrates ( FIG. 10 ).
  • EREDBC showed no saturation by 2-hexenedioic acid, 2-cyclohexen-1-one, and 3-methyl-2-cyclohexenone, but saturation kinetics was observed for trans-cinnamic acid ( FIG. 10 d ).
  • the kinetic constants (k cat and K m ) for trans-cinnamic acid were 0.50 s ⁇ 1 and 0.51 mM, respectively.
  • EREDBC also exhibited moderate substrate inhibition by trans-cinnamic acid at substrate concentrations higher than 1.0 mM with the inhibition constant K i 1.4 mM.
  • EREDBC showed a sigmoid-like profile for 2-hexenedioic acid dissolved in aqueous buffer solution but no saturation was observed despite its significant in vitro activity (0.09 U/mg protein) ( FIG. 10 a ), which might be due to limited solubility of 2-hexenedioic acid in aqueous solutions.
  • EREDs are oxygen-sensitive enzymes, which are rapidly inactivated by oxygen due to the presence of an oxygen sensitive [4Fe-4S] iron-sulfur cluster coordinated by four cysteine residues in strictly conserved motif C-2X-C-3X-C-11X-C ( FIG. 14 )
  • an oxygen sensitive [4Fe-4S] iron-sulfur cluster coordinated by four cysteine residues in strictly conserved motif C-2X-C-3X-C-11X-C FIG. 14
  • EREDBC oxygen-sensitive enzymes, which are rapidly inactivated by oxygen due to the presence of an oxygen sensitive [4Fe-4S] iron-sulfur cluster coordinated by four cysteine residues in strictly conserved motif C-2X-C-3X-C-11X-C ( FIG. 14 )
  • EREDs were placed in 5 mL glass tubes tightly capped with air-tight rubber stoppers. Anaerobic tubes were filled with anaerobic gas mixture (80% N 2 , 10% H 2 , and 10% CO 2 ) and aerobic tubes were filled with atmospheric air.
  • anaerobic gas mixture 80% N 2 , 10% H 2 , and 10% CO 2
  • the tubes were kept on ice for a week and a small aliquots of EREDs (5 ul) were withdrawn by a syringe every day to measure residual activity in a reaction mixture containing 100 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), 0.5 mM NADH, indicated substrates (0.25 mM 2-hexenedioic acid for EREDBC and 0.75 mM cinnamic acid for EREDCA, and protein (1 ⁇ g) in a final volume of 200 ⁇ L.
  • EREDBC and EREDCA retained 35 and 19% of initial activity, respectively.
  • EREDBC showed significant oxygen tolerance (i.e. no oxygen inactivation after retaining 33% of initial activity after three days of storage) ( FIG. 13 a ).
  • EREDCA exhibited 30% residual activity after one day of storage and then, was completely inactivated by oxygen after two additional days of storage ( FIG. 13 b ).
  • the oxygen tolerance of EREDBC and EREDCA may be associated with restricted access of oxygen to its [4Fe-4S].
  • the O 2 sensitivity of the transcription factor FNR is controlled by Ser24 modulating the kinetics of [4Fe-4S] to [2Fe-2S] conversion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106, 4659-4664 (2009)].
  • Adipaldehyde ( ⁇ 95%) was purchased from Activate Scientific (UK), 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid was purchased from Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill, Mass., USA), 4-hydroxybutyric acid was purchased from Arking Pharma (Guelph, ON, Canada), adipic acid ( ⁇ 99.5%), butyraldehyde ( ⁇ 99%), and aminocaproic acid ( ⁇ 99%), 1,6-hexanediol ( ⁇ 99%) were purchased from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo., USA). Phusion® High-Fidelity DNA Polymerase and Dpnl were purchased from New England Biolabs (Whitby, Ontario, Canada). In-Fusion HD plus EcoDry for a ligation-independent cloning was obtained from Clontech (Mountain View, Calif., USA). All other chemicals were purchased from Sigma.
  • 1.6-hexanediol, 1,4-butanediol, 6-hydroxyhexanoic and adipic acid standards and reaction samples were analyzed using a Varian ProStar HPLC system (Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, Calif., USA) equipped with an Aminex HPX-87H column (300 ⁇ 7.8 mm) (Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc., Hercules, Calif., USA). Samples were eluted with 5 mM H 2 SO 4 at a flow rate of 0.6 ml/min, column temperature 50° C. The concentration of 1,6-hexanediol was determined by linear regression based on the peak areas at 210 nm UV or RI.
  • 6-aminocaproic acid standards and reaction samples were prepared derivatised with o-phtalaldehyde according to Interchim website protocol for pre-column procedure of amines derivatisation (http://www.interchim.fr/ft/0/02727A.pdf). After 2 min 30° C. derivatisation, samples were analysed using a Varian ProStar HPLC system (Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, Calif., USA) equipped with fluorescence detector (excitation ⁇ 340 nm, emission—450 nm) and a Pursuit 5—C18 (150 ⁇ 4.0 mm) column.
  • Varian ProStar HPLC system Varian ProStar HPLC system (Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, Calif., USA) equipped with fluorescence detector (excitation ⁇ 340 nm, emission—450 nm) and a Pursuit 5—C18 (150 ⁇ 4.0 mm) column.
  • Samples were eluted with methanol/acetonitrile/water (45/45/10) (B)—40 mM phosphate buffer pH 7.6 (A) gradient.
  • the solvent gradient was: 0 min, 0% B; 20 min, 60% B; 22 min, 60% B; 35 min, 0% B; followed by equilibration for 4 min with 0% B.
  • the concentration of substrates and products was determined by linear regression based on the peak areas.
  • the LC-MS platform consists of a Dionex Ultimate 3000 UHPLC system and a Q-Exactive mass spectrometer equipped with a HESI source (all from Thermo Scientific). Control of the system and data handling was performed using Thermo XCalibur 2.2 software and Chromeleon 7.2 software. Separation by liquid chromatography was conducted on a Hypersil Gold C18 column (50 mm ⁇ 2.1 mm, 1.9 ⁇ m particle size, Thermo Scientific) equipped with a guard column. The pump was run at a flow rate of 200 ⁇ L/min. Solvent A is water containing 0.1% formic acid; solvent B is acetonitrile.
  • the gradient is 0 min, 0% B; Detection of 4 min, 0% B; 15 min, 100% B; 24 min, 100% B; 25 min, 0% B; 30 min, 0% B; followed by equilibration for 5 min with 0% B.
  • Autosampler temperature was maintained at 8° C. and injection volume was 10 ⁇ L.
  • Data collection was done in positive ionization mode with a scan range m/z 100-300, resolution 70000 at 1 Hz, AGC target of 3e6 and a maximum injection time of 200 ms.
  • Standard solutions of 1,6-hexanedioltime and m/z. (m/z 119.1062) and 6-hydroxycaproic acid (m/z 133.0864) were used for validation of retention time and m/z.
  • LIC Ligation independent cloning
  • genes encoding phosphopantetheinyl transferase BSU03570 and entD were amplified from Bacillus subtilis and E. coli K-12 genomic DNA and cloned to pCDFDuet plasmid without tag using standard ligation-dependent protocol [Sambrook J, Russell D. Molecular Cloning—A Laboratory Manual. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Pres. (4th ed.) (2012)].
  • Formate dehydrogenase gene P33160 was cloned in pET23b with C-terminal tag. Site directed mutagenesis was performed using standard protocol [Kunkel T. A. Rapid and efficient site-specific mutagenesis without phenotypic selection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 82, 488-492 (1985)].
  • E. coli transformants were grown aerobically at 37° C. in Terrific Broth (TB) medium (1 L) supplemented with 100 ⁇ g/mL ampicillin (p15Tv-Lic, pET23b) and/or 50 ⁇ g/mL streptomycin (pCDFDuet) until the culture optical density (OD 600 nm) reached 0.8-1. At this point, cultivation temperature was decreased to 16° C., and protein expression was induced with 0.4 mM IPTG.
  • TB Terrific Broth
  • pCDFDuet 50 ⁇ g/mL streptomycin
  • coli cells after overnight induction were harvested by centrifugation (4,500 g), and the cell pellets were stored at ⁇ 20° C. before protein purification.
  • Cell pellets were resuspended in lysis buffer (400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% glycerol, 5 mM imidazole) and sonicated on ice for 20 minutes in 5 second pulses, followed by 5 seconds cooling.
  • Insoluble cell material was removed (40,000 g) and the supernatant was incubated with a Ni-affinity resin (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif., USA) at 4° C. for 1 h.
  • the resin was then washed with 100 mL of washing buffer (400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% glycerol, 20 mM imidazole) and eluted with elution buffer (400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% glycerol, 250 mM imidazole).
  • washing buffer 400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% glycerol, 20 mM imidazole
  • elution buffer 400 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 5% glycerol, 250 mM imidazole.
  • Purified proteins were frozen in droplets in liquid N 2 and stored at ⁇ 80° C. Protein concentration was determined using Bradford assay and protein purity was evaluated using 13% SDS-PAGE gels.
  • N. iowensis CAR has a broad substrate range, though its maximal activity was usually observed with aromatic substrates such as benzoic and cinnamic acids.
  • CARs gene sequences homologues to the N. iowensis CAR (Uniprot number: Q6RKB1), were selected from GenBank database. Based on presence of adenylation (AMP-binding PF00501) and reduction (NAD-binding PF07993) domains accompanied with phosphopantetheinyl binding motif (PF00530) 13 CAR genes (mostly from Mycobacterium ) were cloned and expressed in E. coli . (Table 4).
  • PPTs phosphopantetheinyl transferases
  • E. coli P19925
  • Bacillus subtilis P391357
  • the five CAR enzymes with the highest reductase activity towards adipic acid and 4-hydroxybutyric acid SEQ ID NOs: 35-39 were selected for the biochemical characterization and biotransformation reactions.
  • RHA1_ro05279 SEQ ID NO:47
  • PA1146 SEQ ID NO:43
  • SCO0229 SEQ ID NO:50
  • PP_3370 SEQ ID NO:45
  • PSPTO_2097 SEQ ID NO:46
  • TM_0111 SEQ ID NO:52
  • Enzyme activity of purified ARs was measured spectrophotometrically in 96-well plates
  • Reaction mixtures contained 100 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5), 0.4 mM NADH/NADPH, 10 mM adipaldehyde or butylaldehyde, and proteins (10 ⁇ g for adipaldehyde screen, 2 ⁇ g for butyraldehyde screen) in a final volume of 200 ⁇ L
  • Reaction mixture for adipaldehyde screening contained 1.8% DMSO.
  • PLP-dependent aminotransferases from the classes I, II and III were cloned and overexpressed in E. coli (Table 6). Enzymes were purified using affinity chromatography on a Ni-NTA resin and were screened for reductase activity towards adipaldehyde using alanine and glutamate as amino-donors. Enzyme activity was measured spectrophotometrically using a coupled reaction with the NADPH/NADH-dependent alanine and glutamate dehydrogenases in the presence of excess of ammonium chloride.
  • the five AT enzymes (GabT (SEQ ID NO:53), SM2011_b20379 (SEQ ID NO:59), SAV2583 (SEQ ID NO:55), SM2011_c04388 (SEQ ID NO:58), and SM2011_b20423 (SEQ ID NO:60)) exhibited the highest activity with adipaldehyde/butyraldehyde, and they were used for biochemical characterization.
  • Reaction mixtures contained 100 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5), 0.5 mM NADPH, 0.5 mM NADH, 1 mM alanine, 1 mM glutamate, 10 mM adipaldehyde, 5% ethanol, 37.5 mM NaCl, 50 mM ammonium chloride, 50 ⁇ M PLP, YOR375C and BSU31930 (2.5 ⁇ g each), and AT proteins (20 ⁇ g) in a final volume of 200 ⁇ L.
  • CARs adenylation domain uses 2 phosphates of ATP for substrate activation, forming acyl-AMP intermediate transferred to reducing domain, where one molecule of NADPH is oxidised for aldehyde release.
  • Application of CARs together with ARs for full reduction of carboxylic group to alcohol needs 2 molecules of NADPH and 1 ATP.
  • Full biotransformation of adipic acid to 1,6-hexanediol will cost in total 4 NADPH and 2 ATP molecules.
  • cofactor dependent enzymes such as oxidoreductases or transferases needs enzymatic systems for regeneration of consumed cofactors to make the system cost-effective.
  • pyruvate kinase uses phosphoenolpyruvate
  • acetate kinase uses acetylphisphate
  • creatine kinase uses creatine phosphate
  • polyphosphate kinase uses polyphosphate
  • Polyphospate kinase family II comprises enzymes able to regenerate AMP to ATP in two steps.
  • SMc02148 SEQ ID NO:105
  • PA3455 SEQ ID NO:104
  • ATP regeneration SMc02148 (SEQ ID NO:105) from Sinorhizobium meliloti and PA3455 (SEQ ID NO:104) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa , were applied (Table 7) [Nocek B., Kochinyan S., Proudfoot M., Brown G., Evdokimova E., Osipiuk J., Edwards A. M., Savchenko A., Joachimiak A., Yakunin A. F. Polyphosphate-dependent synthesis of ATP and ADP by the family-2 polyphosphate kinases in bacteria.
  • Enzymes were cloned and overexpressed in E. coli . Enzymes purified by affinity chromatography using Ni-NTA resin were applied for CARs+ARs/ATs coupled reactions. Their activity for separate steps of ATP regeneration and full AMP to ATP regeneration in presence of polyphosphate (10-14 phosphates chain length) was confirmed by HPLC reverse-phase chromatography.
  • Screened ATs enzymes consume alanine and/or glutamate as amino-group donors, that also need to be regenerated.
  • Two enzymes were found suitable for this purposes—YOR375C (SEQ ID NO:107), NADPH-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae , and BSU31930 (SEQ ID NO:106), NADH-dependent alanine dehydrogenase from Bacillus subtilis (Table 7).
  • Enzymes were cloned and expressed in E. coli . After purification with affinity chromatography on Ni-NTA resin, enzymes were tested for alanine ( FIG. 17 A) and glutamate regeneration ( FIG. 17 B). Both enzymes were applied for primary ATs screening and ATs biochemical characterization as coupled enzymes, enabling pyruvate and ketoglutarate detection in presence of reduced cofactors NADH and NADPH and NH 4 Cl excess.
  • Reaction mixture contained 100 mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8.0), 50 mM sodium formate, 1 ⁇ g of enzyme.
  • Polyphosphate kinase activity was measured using reverse phase Pursuit 5—C18 column HPLC in linear gradient of Acetonitrile—50 mM KH 2 PO 4 with 8 mM TBAH. Detecting wavelength—245 nm. Reaction mixture contains 100 mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8.0), 10 mM MgCl 2 , 0.25 mM polyphosphate, 3 mM ADP/AMP, 0.5 ⁇ g enzyme.
  • CARs, ARs and amino-donor regenerating enzymes use pyridine nucleotides are as cofactors.
  • Several enzymatic methods have been developed for the regeneration of NAD(P)H, such as reduction with formate dehydrogenase, glucose dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and alcohol dehydrogenase [Woodyer R. D., Johannes T., Zhao H. Cofactor Regeneration for Biocatalytic Applications. In Enzyme Technology, (A. Pandey, C. Webb, C. S. Soccol, and C. Larroche, Eds.) Chapter 5, Asiatech Publishers Inc., New Delhi, India, 83-101 (2004)].
  • Formate dehydrogenase are widely applied for regeneration of NADH and use cheap substrate-formate, releasing CO 2 , that can be easily removed from reaction mixture.
  • NADPH-dependent formate dehydrogenases are far less common, than NADH-dependent enzymes.
  • Masaki Ihara work [Ihara M., Okabe A., Kawano Y., and Urano M. Light Driven CO2 Fixation by using cyanobacterial photosystem I and NADPH-dependent formate dehydrogenase. Plos One.
  • CARs+PP_3370 reaction mixture contained 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 1 mM NADPH, 2 mM ATP, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 10 mM adipic or 4-hydroxybutyric acid, 50 mM sodium formate, 5 mM polyphosphate, 80 ⁇ g of CAR, 20 ⁇ g of PP_3370, 10 ⁇ g of P33160 (D222Q/H224N), 10 ⁇ g of PA3455, and 10 ⁇ g of SMc02148.
  • MAB_4714c+ATs reaction mixture contained 100 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 0.5 mM NADPH, 1 mM glutamate, 2 mM ATP, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 20 mM adipic, 50 mM sodium formate, 60 mM ammonium chloride, 5 mM polyphosphate, 80 ⁇ g of MAB_4714c, 20 ⁇ g of gabT or SAV2583, 10 ⁇ g of P33160 (D222Q/H224N), 5 ⁇ g YOR375C 10 ⁇ g of PA3455, and 10 ⁇ g of SMc02148.
  • Enzymes showing the highest activity from initial screening were characterized in vitro for adipic, and hydroxybutyric acids saturation (Table 8).
  • the lowest K m for both substrates belongs to MAB_4714c (35.87 ⁇ 2.68 mM and 26.52 ⁇ 1.77 mM respectively) also as highest catalytic efficiency (89.55 ⁇ 3.07 M ⁇ 1 ⁇ s ⁇ 1 and 71 ⁇ 3 M ⁇ 1 ⁇ s ⁇ 1 ).
  • the specific activity of majority of CARs towards benzoic acid is in the same range as CAR from Nocardia iowensis (2 U/mg) [Akhtsr K. M., Turner N. J., Jones R. P.
  • Carboxylic acid reductase is a versatile enzyme for the conversion of fatty acids into fuels and chemical commodities. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 110, 87-92 (2013)]. Taking into account sequential reduction of carboxylic groups of adipic acid and formation of 1,6-hexanoic acid as intermediate, CARs were also characterised for activity towards 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid.
  • 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid Enzymes k cat , s ⁇ 1 K m , mM k cat /K m , M ⁇ 1 ⁇ s ⁇ 1 MSMEG_2956 2.32 ⁇ 0.22 66.15 ⁇ 9.48 35.09 ⁇ 3.29 MSMEI_5586 1.20 ⁇ 0.07 16.2 ⁇ 2.11 74.18 ⁇ 4.05 MSMEG_5739 1.21 ⁇ 0.04 8.33 ⁇ 0.73 145.4 ⁇ 4.4 MAP_1040c 2.91 ⁇ 0.19 70.1 ⁇ 7.04 41.58 ⁇ 2.77 MAB_4714c 2.62 ⁇ 0.03 2.64 ⁇ 0.13 995.04 ⁇ 13.02 7.3—Biochemical Characterization of ARs/ATs
  • ARs RHA1_ro05279, PA1146, SCO0229, PP_3370 were characterised for saturation with adipaldehyde, PP_3370, PSPTO_2097, RHA1_ro05279, SCO0229, TM_0111, PA1146 were characterised for butyraldehyde saturation (Table 10).
  • CARs cofactor preference towards NADPH rather that NADH ARs more active with NADPH were chosen. For both substrates maximal k cat /K m with minimal K m values was shown by AR PP_3370 from Pseudomonas putida .
  • MAB_4714c exhibited maximal 32.9 ⁇ 2.2% transformation of 4-hydroxybutanoic acid to 1,4-butanediol, and 38.7 ⁇ 0.9% transformation of adipic acid to 1,6 hexanediol.
  • MMAB_4714c converted 3.2 ⁇ 0.2% of adipic acid to 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid (Table 12).
  • E. coli cells expressing recombinant CARs with BSU03570 phosphopantetheinyl transferase were grown on LB media with 100 ⁇ M ampicillin, 50 ⁇ M streptomycin, supplemented with 2% glycerol aerobically on 37° C., until the culture optical density (OD 600 nm) reached 0.6-0.8. At this point protein expression was induced with 0.4 mM IPTG and substrate (adipic acid or 4-hydroxybutyric acid) for final 10 mM concentration was added. Samples were taken at 6 h, 24 h and 48 h, centrifuged, supernatant was filtered through 10 kDa centrifugal filters. Products were analyzed with HPLC or LC-MS. Negative control experiments were performed using E. coli cells harboring empty plasmids. All results of in vivo experiments are means from at least two independent determinations.
  • MAB_4714c K m value with adipic acid is 35.87 ⁇ 2.68 mM (Table 8).
  • the conversion yields for the characterized ATs with adipaldehyde are at least 10 times higher, than that with CARs's. In such case majority of monoaldehyde will be trapped by aminotransferases and excepted from catalytic transformation in form of 6-aminocaproic acid.
  • MAB_4714c was coupled with GabT or SAV2583 ATs, glutamate was used as amino-donor.
  • Reaction was supplied with ATP, NAD(P)H and glutamate regenerating enzymes and their substrates—5 mM polyphosphate (10-14 phosphates in chain length), 40 mM formate, 50 mM NH 4 Cl. 20 mM of substrate was used for 12 h conversion. Product formation was analyzed by HPLC using C18 pre-column O-phtalaldehyde derivatization. Maximum transformation efficiency of adipic acid to 6-aminocaproic acid was estimated as 21.3 ⁇ 0.8% (Table 14).

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