US6110516A - Process for treating foods using saccharide esters and superatmospheric hydrostatic pressure - Google Patents

Process for treating foods using saccharide esters and superatmospheric hydrostatic pressure Download PDF

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Publication number
US6110516A
US6110516A US09/230,130 US23013099A US6110516A US 6110516 A US6110516 A US 6110516A US 23013099 A US23013099 A US 23013099A US 6110516 A US6110516 A US 6110516A
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food
ester
saccharide
superatmospheric
temperature
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Expired - Fee Related
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US09/230,130
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English (en)
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Dallas G. Hoover
Cynthia M. Stewart
Charles Patrick Dunne
Anthony Sikes
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University of Delaware
National Jewish Health
United States Department of the Army
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University of Delaware
United States Department of the Army
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Assigned to ARMY, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AS REPRESENTED BY THE SECRETARY OF THE reassignment ARMY, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AS REPRESENTED BY THE SECRETARY OF THE ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: DUNNE, CHARLES PATRICK
Assigned to UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE reassignment UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: STEWART, CYNTHIA M., HOOVER, DALLAS G.
Assigned to ARMY, USA AS REPRESENTED BY THE SEC OF THE reassignment ARMY, USA AS REPRESENTED BY THE SEC OF THE CONFIRMATORY INSTRUMENT Assignors: DUNNE, PATRICK, HOOVER, DALLAS, SIKES, ANTHONY, STEWART, CYNTHIA
Assigned to NATIONAL JEWISH CENTER FOR IMMUNOLOGY AND RESPIRATORY MEDICINE reassignment NATIONAL JEWISH CENTER FOR IMMUNOLOGY AND RESPIRATORY MEDICINE ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: CADUS PHARMACEUTICAL CORPORATION
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Classifications

    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
    • A23B—PRESERVATION OF FOODS, FOODSTUFFS OR NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES; CHEMICAL RIPENING OF FRUIT OR VEGETABLES
    • A23B7/00—Preservation of fruit or vegetables; Chemical ripening of fruit or vegetables
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
    • A23B—PRESERVATION OF FOODS, FOODSTUFFS OR NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES; CHEMICAL RIPENING OF FRUIT OR VEGETABLES
    • A23B2/00—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general
    • A23B2/10—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general by treatment with pressure variation, shock, acceleration or shear stress
    • A23B2/103—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general by treatment with pressure variation, shock, acceleration or shear stress using sub- or super-atmospheric pressures, or pressure variations transmitted by a liquid or gas
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
    • A23B—PRESERVATION OF FOODS, FOODSTUFFS OR NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES; CHEMICAL RIPENING OF FRUIT OR VEGETABLES
    • A23B2/00—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general
    • A23B2/40—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general by heating loose unpacked materials
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
    • A23B—PRESERVATION OF FOODS, FOODSTUFFS OR NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES; CHEMICAL RIPENING OF FRUIT OR VEGETABLES
    • A23B2/00—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general
    • A23B2/70—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general by treatment with chemicals
    • A23B2/725—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general by treatment with chemicals in the form of liquids or solids
    • A23B2/729—Organic compounds; Microorganisms; Enzymes
    • A23B2/742—Organic compounds containing oxygen
    • A23B2/754—Organic compounds containing oxygen containing carboxyl groups
    • A23B2/758—Carboxylic acid esters
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
    • A23B—PRESERVATION OF FOODS, FOODSTUFFS OR NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES; CHEMICAL RIPENING OF FRUIT OR VEGETABLES
    • A23B2/00—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general
    • A23B2/70—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general by treatment with chemicals
    • A23B2/725—Preservation of foods or foodstuffs, in general by treatment with chemicals in the form of liquids or solids
    • A23B2/729—Organic compounds; Microorganisms; Enzymes
    • A23B2/779—Sugars; Derivatives thereof
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
    • A23B—PRESERVATION OF FOODS, FOODSTUFFS OR NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES; CHEMICAL RIPENING OF FRUIT OR VEGETABLES
    • A23B4/00—Preservation of meat, sausages, fish or fish products
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
    • A23B—PRESERVATION OF FOODS, FOODSTUFFS OR NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES; CHEMICAL RIPENING OF FRUIT OR VEGETABLES
    • A23B4/00—Preservation of meat, sausages, fish or fish products
    • A23B4/14—Preserving with chemicals not covered by groups A23B4/02 or A23B4/12
    • A23B4/18—Preserving with chemicals not covered by groups A23B4/02 or A23B4/12 in the form of liquids or solids
    • A23B4/20—Organic compounds; Microorganisms; Enzymes
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
    • A23B—PRESERVATION OF FOODS, FOODSTUFFS OR NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES; CHEMICAL RIPENING OF FRUIT OR VEGETABLES
    • A23B7/00—Preservation of fruit or vegetables; Chemical ripening of fruit or vegetables
    • A23B7/14—Preserving or ripening with chemicals not covered by group A23B7/08 or A23B7/10
    • A23B7/153—Preserving or ripening with chemicals not covered by group A23B7/08 or A23B7/10 in the form of liquids or solids
    • A23B7/154—Organic compounds; Microorganisms; Enzymes

Definitions

  • This invention relates to a process for treating foods or foodstuffs for the purpose of substantially eliminating microorganisms.
  • An aspect of this invention relates to a method for elimination of sporulated and/or sporeforming food-spoilage microorganisms from foods.
  • a further aspect of this invention relates to a bactericidal process for treating foods which are adversely affected by elevated temperatures but are not substantially affected adversely by superatmospheric pressure.
  • microorganisms can be found in raw and partially processed foods and even in some fully processed foods.
  • the microorganisms of greatest concern to food product manufacturers and food consumers are generally bacteria which produce toxins or which have food-spoilage effects. Many of these bacteria are temperature-sensitive and can be killed--or at least significantly reduced in population--by heat treatments such as canning, pasteurization, and aseptic processing.
  • Other means of controlling bacterial populations involve irradiation, hermetically-sealed-in growth-inhibiting atmospheres, and the addition of chemicals such as food preservatives, e.g. sorbates, and/or changes in the natural pH of the foodstuff.
  • One common practice in this art is to modify the atmosphere in the container which stores the food, thereby providing a safer environment for food storage.
  • hermetic or air-tight storage has been used to seal off the food container and store the food under a gas mixture which contains very little oxygen and a large amount of carbon dioxide (compared to the normal atmospheric concentration).
  • the high-CO 2 atmosphere in the container prevents growth of oxygen-utilizing organisms.
  • this storage technique does not necessarily hinder the growth of either anaerobic bacteria or sporeforming microorganisms.
  • Heat can be a potent weapon against bacteria. Anti-bacterial effects are obtained with thermal processing of the food itself and with thermal treatment of the containers used to store the food. In thermal processing, temperatures can be below 100° C. or heat can be applied in the form of wet steam (at about 100° C.) or superheated steam (>100° C.). Canning generally involves a steam treatment of the container, whereas processes such as pasteurization (used primarily for dairy products and beverages) is a direct treatment of the food itself. Some control over bacterial populations is obtained at temperatures as low as 60° C., since the life processes and some essential enzymes are damaged or disrupted and can even become inoperative at temperatures above 37° C. Some enzymes, for example, are completely and permanently denatured at temperatures as low as 50° C.
  • cooling to temperatures well below 37°, e.g. 10° C. or less can inhibit or temporarily inactivate bacterial life processes and enzymes, but the effect is not permanent, and the bacteria can resume reproductive and other life processes when the temperature of their environment returns to 20 to 40° C.
  • Canning is a severe form of heat treatment that will inactivate heat-resistant microorganisms, including bacterial spores, but due to the limitations of all heat-treatment methods, described above, canning is most often used for foods such as chunky fruits and soups with meat and vegetables.
  • the canned food of commerce is sterile. Hence, canning is virtually the only food preservation method which is effective against bacterial spores.
  • Bacterial spores are resistant to most types of sterilization except for heat treatments in which the temperature reaches 130 to 145° C. Once these microorganisms have formed spores, the spores tend to be resistant to damage from pressure, moderate temperatures, and many chemical additives.
  • Sporeforming microorganisms and bacterial spores can resist, inter alia, irradiation treatments and aseptic processing and packaging. Irradiation is useful for protecting raw meats, fruits, dairy products, grains, and vegetables from aerobic, non-sporeforming microorganisms, some molds, and some insects. Bacterial spores are generally unaffected by irradiation.
  • Aseptic processing/packaging is a sterilization method that was developed to avoid denaturing foods that cannot withstand the harsh conditions of conventional thermal processing.
  • This method uses so-called "UHT" (ultra-high temperature) treatments which are extremely brief. That is, the heat-sensitive food product is exposed to the UHT treatment for just a few seconds. Microbial inactivation is achieved, and yet the food product suffers minimal or greatly reduced damage as compared to conventional heat treatments.
  • the UHT-treated food is then packaged in pre-sterilized containers, but the containers have been cooled, so that they do not add to the heat-history of the food product.
  • UHT sterilization does not kill bacterial spores.
  • sugar esters as food preservatives, particularly the mono- and di-saccharide sugars (glucose, fructose, mannose, galactose, sucrose, etc.). These esters are typically tasteless, odorless, and non-toxic; moreover they are essentially non-polluting due to their high degree of biodegradability.
  • saccharide esters can mimic the effects of fat and provide useful emulsifying effects.
  • saccharide esters can be bactericidal. Accordingly, in the food preservation field, these esters appear to be of primary importance for their ability to control, rather than eliminate, bacterial populations.
  • Foods and foodstuffs are used substantially synonymously in this application, the only difference being that “foods” are considered to include edible materials at any stage of processing, whereas “foodstuffs” are more likely to be in raw or partially processed form.
  • Foods and foodstuffs suitable for treatment by this process include raw and processed edible (preferably human-edible) materials which are acidic (2 ⁇ pH ⁇ 7)--preferably mildly acidic, neutral, or very mildly basic (e.g. pH ⁇ about 8) and which are liquid, semi-liquid, or semi-solid (e.g.
  • liquids, semi-solids, and semi-liquids can be expected to resist denaturing or other adverse effects (e.g. upon flavor, color, aroma, or nutrient value) which might result from the application of high hydrostatic pressure.
  • Certain solid foods are also resistant to adverse changes in flavor or nutrient value (and can also resist changes in color and aroma), particularly stews and meats, and can be treated in accordance with this invention in much the same manner as semi-solids.
  • Strongly acid foods (2 ⁇ pH ⁇ 5) are of less concern, in the context of this invention, as compared to mildly acid and neutral foods.
  • the process of this invention could be considered a form of "cold pasteurization", since the temperatures employed are well below biocidal temperatures, particularly for spores.
  • saccharide esters normally suitable essentially as bacteriostatic agents
  • saccharide esters can be bactericidal under the conditions employed in this invention.
  • this invention is not bound by any theory, it is presently believed that the saccharide ester, in a high hydrostatic pressure environment, interacts with spore layers to disrupt the protective effect of the spore structure and thereby expose the spore to severe damage, e.g. from the high pressure.
  • Sporeforming microorganisms are typically bacteria, including bacteria of the Bacillus family, e.g. B. subtilis.
  • the sporeforming microorganisms can be present in sporulated and/or vegetative form; the invention is effective against these organisms regardless of their state of sporulation.
  • the preferred saccharide esters are derived by esterifying monosaccharides or disaccharides, most preferably disaccharides, such as sucrose, C 12 H 22 O 11 , which is made up of one hexose unit linked to a furanose unit: ##STR1##
  • sucrose molecule An important structural feature of the sucrose molecule is its three methylol groups (--CH 2 OH), all of which are sterically unhindered and are easier to esterify with carboxylic acid esterifying agents (e.g. carboxylic acids, carboxylic acid halides, and carboxylic acid anhydrides) than are the five ring-substituted hydroxyl groups.
  • carboxylic acid esterifying agents e.g. carboxylic acids, carboxylic acid halides, and carboxylic acid anhydrides
  • sucrose can be esterified completely to the octa-ester, the mono-ester tends to form first, followed by the di- and tri-esters.
  • the saccharide esters of this invention are preferably mono-, di-, and/or tri-esters, and it is further preferred that the mono-ester content of the esterified product be at least 10% by weight of the total product, essentially the balance being di- and tri-esters.
  • the major amount by weight of the esterified disaccharide is the mono-ester, and a mono-ester content as high as about 80 or 90% by weight is particularly useful. It is not necessary, however, to eliminate all of the higher ester content, nor is it practical. Thus, the total amount of di- and/or tri-ester content is generally not less than about 10% by weight.
  • hydrophile/lipophile balance (HLB) of saccharide esters is affected by the number of hydroxyl groups esterified, and the higher esters (particularly sucrose octa-esters) can be extremely lipophilic--probably too lipophilic to have sufficient biocompatibility with the target for attack. It presently appears that a certain amount of both hydrophilic and lipophilic properties are desirable for the purpose of breaking down the integrity of the spore, and the HLB of disaccharide mono-esters, di-esters, and tri-esters appears to be in approximately the correct range for achieving the objectives of this invention.
  • Another factor which affects biocompatibility and the HLB range is the nature of the carboxylic acid residue of the ester groups.
  • Straight-chain fatty acids are preferred, and the HLB is considered too low in lipophilic properties if the carbon chain of the fatty residue has less than about 8 carbons.
  • the hydrocarbon character of fatty acids having a chain longer than about 24 carbons is believed to be excessive.
  • the peak values for good HLB balance and compatibility with spore components are believed to lie in the range of fatty acid residues having about 10 to about 20 carbon atoms.
  • saturated and unsaturated straight-chain fatty acid residues are suitable in the context of this invention, the preferred residues are saturated (e.g. lauric, palmitic, myristic, and stearic acids).
  • sucrose laurate containing about 70 to 80% of the monoester, essentially the balance being di- and/or tri-ester.
  • the preferred esterification site is the methylol group of the hexose unit of the sucrose molecule.
  • sucrose ester is represented by formula I ##STR2## where R 1 is an alkyl group having from 10 to 20 (especially 12 to 18) carbon atoms, and R 2 and R 3 are H or, less preferably, C 10 -C 20 -alkyl.
  • the most effective way of carrying out the process of this invention in the presence of the saccharide ester is to add the saccharide ester to the food or foodstuff, prior to processing, in generally the conventional ways that food additives are introduced.
  • the additive can be thoroughly blended with the food using a mixer. Since the saccharide esters are available in powder and waxy forms, solid foods such as meats can be given a very complete surface coating of the ester.
  • Typical amounts of saccharide ester added to the food or foodstuff prior to processing range from about 0.1 parts by weight per 100 parts by weight of product (0.1 phr) to about 1.0 phr.
  • foods and foodstuffs selected for treatment according to this invention are generally not harmed by high hydrostatic pressure.
  • the superatmospheric hydrostatic pressure should be very high--in the thousands of atmospheres, e.g above 3,000 atmospheres (above about 310 MPa). Optimum results have been obtained with about 4,000 atmospheres (about 410 MPa). Still higher pressures can be used, but do not appear to provide any additional advantages.
  • the function of the treatment temperature has less to do with outright killing of bacteria than it does with facilitating the interaction between the saccharide ester and the spore cortex. Accordingly, it is not necessary that the temperature at which the process is conducted be significantly above 35 or even 37° C. Even a temperature of only 40° C. will, apparently, facilitate this interaction.
  • the optimum temperature appears to be as low as about 40 to 50° C. Higher temperatures can be used (e.g 60° or more), but they do not appear to confer any significant advantage, and they increase the risk of lowering sensory quality or reducing the nutrient value of the product. Accordingly, this invention appears to be ideally suited to the treatment of foodstuffs which are not adversely affected by pressure but which are subject to heat denaturization.
  • temperatures utilized in this invention is believed to be surprising, since, in the absence of the high hydrostatic pressure and the saccharide ester, thermal treatments in the 100 to 250° C. range are normally required to have a significant impact upon a spore population. As noted previously, there are many foods and foodstuffs which cannot be heated to such high temperatures without detracting seriously from their commercial value.
  • Treatment times have been discussed previously. Generally speaking, the treatment (especially the pressure, which is the most difficult to maintain) can be continued until the spore integrity have been substantially totally disrupted or broken down. Microorganisms in the vegetative state are also essentially destroyed. Further continuation of the treatment beyond this point adds cost and complexity without significantly improving the product of the process. For example, treatment times longer than 60 minutes appear to serve no important purpose and are wasteful of energy and equipment time. Essential elimination of the sporeforming organisms, whether in spore form or in the vegetative state, has been observed with treatment times as short as about ten minutes. Where less complete elimination of these microorganisms can be tolerated, times shorter than 10 minutes can be used, but apparently, very little is accomplished in less than about 2 minutes. Treatment times of at least 5 minutes are preferred.
  • the pressure can be released, e.g. to normal ambient temperature, by unsealing or depressurizing the pressurized chamber.
  • the temperature of the resulting treated product can be maintained at 35° C. or higher for a short time after treatment, but it is often most desirable to refrigerate the product after pressure treatment. Cooling of the treated product to refrigeration or freezing temperatures below 15° C. (e.g. -20 to 10° C.) is generally preferred. Deep freezing to temperatures as low as -60° C. can also be used.
  • the product is thus preferably kept under refrigeration for storage or shipping.
  • Microbiological media representing model foods and containing a significant population of bacterial spores were blended with 0.1% of sucrose laurate type L-1695 (Ryoto Sugar Ester, a product of Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation).
  • the L-1695 sucrose laurate is a waxy powder having an HLB value of 16 and contains 80% of the mono-laurate (the esterification being on the methylol group of the hexose unit of the sucrose). Essentially the balance of the Ryoto product is believed to be sucrose di-laurate and/or sucrose tri-laurate.
  • the medium containing the sucrose laurate was placed in a mildly heated pressure unit and subjected to 4,000 atmospheres (410 MPa) for ten minutes at 45° C. The pressure was released, and the samples are removed from the pressure unit. Substantially complete elimination of the spore population was observed.

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  • Life Sciences & Earth Sciences (AREA)
  • Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
  • Chemical & Material Sciences (AREA)
  • Wood Science & Technology (AREA)
  • Zoology (AREA)
  • Food Science & Technology (AREA)
  • Polymers & Plastics (AREA)
  • Chemical Kinetics & Catalysis (AREA)
  • General Chemical & Material Sciences (AREA)
  • Microbiology (AREA)
  • General Preparation And Processing Of Foods (AREA)
  • Food Preservation Except Freezing, Refrigeration, And Drying (AREA)
US09/230,130 1997-11-13 1998-11-13 Process for treating foods using saccharide esters and superatmospheric hydrostatic pressure Expired - Fee Related US6110516A (en)

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PCT/US1998/024294 WO1999025206A1 (fr) 1997-11-13 1998-11-13 Procede de traitement des aliments

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Cited By (17)

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US20050053593A1 (en) * 2003-09-09 2005-03-10 3M Innovative Properties Company Antimicrobial compositions and methods
US20050084471A1 (en) * 2003-09-09 2005-04-21 3M Innovative Properties Company Concentrated antimicrobial compositions and methods
US20050222312A1 (en) * 2002-11-19 2005-10-06 Frost John W Antioxidant and antimicrobial agents and methods of use thereof
US20060204558A1 (en) * 2005-03-10 2006-09-14 Kantner Steven S Antimicrobial pet wipes and methods
US20060229364A1 (en) * 2005-03-10 2006-10-12 3M Innovative Properties Company Antiviral compositions and methods of use
US20080075793A1 (en) * 2006-09-21 2008-03-27 Dunshee Wayne K Antiviral compositions and methods of use
US20090232959A1 (en) * 2008-03-13 2009-09-17 Cargill, Incorporated High pressure meat product processing
US20110059217A1 (en) * 2007-06-27 2011-03-10 Meyer Richard S High pressure frozen sterilization process
WO2012076933A1 (fr) 2010-12-09 2012-06-14 Universidade De Aveiro Pâtes cellulosiques modifiées, procédé de préparation par traitement à haute pression et applications respectives
US8476319B2 (en) 2005-03-10 2013-07-02 3M Innovative Properties Company Methods of treating ear infections
US8512723B2 (en) 2003-09-09 2013-08-20 3M Innovative Properties Company Antimicrobial compositions and methods
RU2500304C1 (ru) * 2012-06-19 2013-12-10 Магомед Эминович Ахмедов Способ стерилизации консервов "суп-пюре мясоовощной с кабачками"
US20140010933A1 (en) * 2012-06-26 2014-01-09 Stemilt Growers LLC Methods, Systems, and Devices for Improving Quality of Cherries Post-Harvest
US9826770B2 (en) 2005-03-10 2017-11-28 3M Innovative Properties Company Antimicrobial compositions comprising esters of hydroxycarboxylic acids
US10874113B1 (en) 2016-02-08 2020-12-29 Hormel Foods Corporation Method of producing bacteria reduced raw, fresh, ground meat products
US10918618B2 (en) 2005-03-10 2021-02-16 3M Innovative Properties Company Methods of reducing microbial contamination
CN116326711A (zh) * 2021-12-22 2023-06-27 中国农业大学 一种月桂酰精氨酸乙酯盐酸盐抗菌纳米纤维膜与超高压联合杀菌的方法

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DE10159248A1 (de) * 2000-12-20 2003-06-18 Fritz Kortschak Verfahren zur gezielten Veränderung der Proteinstruktur von Prionen PrP·s··c·

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Cited By (19)

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US20050222312A1 (en) * 2002-11-19 2005-10-06 Frost John W Antioxidant and antimicrobial agents and methods of use thereof
US20050053593A1 (en) * 2003-09-09 2005-03-10 3M Innovative Properties Company Antimicrobial compositions and methods
US20050084471A1 (en) * 2003-09-09 2005-04-21 3M Innovative Properties Company Concentrated antimicrobial compositions and methods
US8512723B2 (en) 2003-09-09 2013-08-20 3M Innovative Properties Company Antimicrobial compositions and methods
US10471036B2 (en) 2003-09-09 2019-11-12 3M Innovative Properties Company Antimicrobial compositions and methods
US8476319B2 (en) 2005-03-10 2013-07-02 3M Innovative Properties Company Methods of treating ear infections
US20060229364A1 (en) * 2005-03-10 2006-10-12 3M Innovative Properties Company Antiviral compositions and methods of use
US20060204558A1 (en) * 2005-03-10 2006-09-14 Kantner Steven S Antimicrobial pet wipes and methods
US10918618B2 (en) 2005-03-10 2021-02-16 3M Innovative Properties Company Methods of reducing microbial contamination
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