EP0821729B1 - Structure-based designed herbicide resistant products - Google Patents

Structure-based designed herbicide resistant products Download PDF

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EP0821729B1
EP0821729B1 EP96913160A EP96913160A EP0821729B1 EP 0821729 B1 EP0821729 B1 EP 0821729B1 EP 96913160 A EP96913160 A EP 96913160A EP 96913160 A EP96913160 A EP 96913160A EP 0821729 B1 EP0821729 B1 EP 0821729B1
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ahas
imidazolinone
protein
variant
cell
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EP0821729A4 (en
EP0821729A1 (en
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Genichi Kakefuda
Karl-Heinz Ott
Jae-Gyu Kwagh
Gerald W. Stockton
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BASF SE
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BASF SE
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    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12N—MICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N9/00—Enzymes; Proenzymes; Compositions thereof; Processes for preparing, activating, inhibiting, separating or purifying enzymes
    • C12N9/88—Lyases (4.)
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12N—MICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N15/00—Mutation or genetic engineering; DNA or RNA concerning genetic engineering, vectors, e.g. plasmids, or their isolation, preparation or purification; Use of hosts therefor
    • C12N15/09—Recombinant DNA-technology
    • C12N15/63—Introduction of foreign genetic material using vectors; Vectors; Use of hosts therefor; Regulation of expression
    • C12N15/79—Vectors or expression systems specially adapted for eukaryotic hosts
    • C12N15/82—Vectors or expression systems specially adapted for eukaryotic hosts for plant cells, e.g. plant artificial chromosomes (PACs)
    • C12N15/8241—Phenotypically and genetically modified plants via recombinant DNA technology
    • C12N15/8261—Phenotypically and genetically modified plants via recombinant DNA technology with agronomic (input) traits, e.g. crop yield
    • C12N15/8271—Phenotypically and genetically modified plants via recombinant DNA technology with agronomic (input) traits, e.g. crop yield for stress resistance, e.g. heavy metal resistance
    • C12N15/8274—Phenotypically and genetically modified plants via recombinant DNA technology with agronomic (input) traits, e.g. crop yield for stress resistance, e.g. heavy metal resistance for herbicide resistance
    • C12N15/8278—Sulfonylurea
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G16—INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY [ICT] SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATION FIELDS
    • G16B—BIOINFORMATICS, i.e. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY [ICT] SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR GENETIC OR PROTEIN-RELATED DATA PROCESSING IN COMPUTATIONAL MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
    • G16B15/00—ICT specially adapted for analysing two-dimensional [2D] or three-dimensional [3D] molecular structures, e.g. structural or functional relations or structure alignment
    • G16B15/20—Protein or domain folding
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G16—INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY [ICT] SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATION FIELDS
    • G16B—BIOINFORMATICS, i.e. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY [ICT] SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR GENETIC OR PROTEIN-RELATED DATA PROCESSING IN COMPUTATIONAL MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
    • G16B15/00—ICT specially adapted for analysing two-dimensional [2D] or three-dimensional [3D] molecular structures, e.g. structural or functional relations or structure alignment

Definitions

  • This invention pertains to structure-based modelling and design of variants of acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS) that are resistant to imidazolinones and other herbicides, the AHAS inhibiting herbicides, AHAS variants themselves, DNA encoding these variants, plants expressing these variants, and methods of weed management.
  • AHAS acetohydroxy acid synthase
  • Acetohydroxy acid synthase is an enzyme that catalyzes the initial step in the biosynthesis of isoleucine, leucine, and valine in bacteria, yeast, and plants.
  • the mature AHAS from Zea Mays is approximately a 599-amino acid protein that is localized in the chloroplast (see Figure 1).
  • the enzyme utilizes thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) as cofactors and pyruvate as a substrate to form acetolactate.
  • TPP thiamine pyrophosphate
  • FAD flavin adenine dinucleotide
  • the enzyme also catalyzes the condensation of pyruvate and 2-ketobutyrate to form acetohydroxybutyrate.
  • AHAS is also known as acetolactate synthase or acetolactate pyruvate lyase (carboxylating), and is designated EC 4.1.3.18.
  • the active enzyme is probably at least a homodimer. Ibdah et al. ( Protein Science, 3 :479-S, 1994), in an abstract, disclose one model for the active site of AHAS.
  • herbicides including imidazolinone compounds such as imazethapyr (PURSUIT® - American Cyanamid Company-Wayne, NJ), sulfonylurea-based compounds such as sulfometuron methyl (OUST® - E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company-Wilmington, DE), triazolopyrimidine sulfonamides (Broadstrike TM - Dow Elanco; see Gerwick, et al., Pestic. Sci.
  • imidazolinone compounds such as imazethapyr (PURSUIT® - American Cyanamid Company-Wayne, NJ)
  • sulfonylurea-based compounds such as sulfometuron methyl (OUST® - E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company-Wilmington, DE)
  • triazolopyrimidine sulfonamides Broadstrike TM - Dow Elanco; see Gerwick, e
  • Patent No. 4,883,914 act by inhibiting AHAS enzymatic activity.
  • AHAS enzymatic activity See, Chaleff et al., Science 224 :1443, 1984; LaRossa et al., J.Biol.Chem. 259 :8753, 1984; Ray, Plant Physiol. 75 :827, 11984; Shaner et al., Plant Physiol. 76 :545, 1984).
  • These herbicides are highly effective and environmentally benign. Their use in agriculture, however, is limited by their lack of selectivity, since crops as well as undesirable weeds are sensitive to the phytotoxic effects of these herbicides.
  • the present invention provides a structure-based modelling method for the production of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistant AHAS variant protein.
  • the method includes:
  • the method further may include:
  • An alternate structure-based modelling method for the production of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistant AHAS variant protein is also provided. This method includes:
  • This method can further include:
  • the method includes:
  • This method can further include:
  • the catalytic activity in the absence of the herbicide is at least about 5% and most preferably is more than about 20% of the catalytic activity of the wild-type AHAS.
  • the herbicide is an imidazolinone herbicide
  • the herbicide resistant AHAS variant protein preferably has:
  • the present invention further provides isolated DNA encoding acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS) variant proteins, the variant proteins comprising an AHAS protein modified by:
  • residue #2 corresponds to the putative amino terminus of the mature protein, i.e., after removal of a chloroplast targeting peptide.
  • the above modifications are directed to altering the ability of an imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide to inhibit the enzymatic activity of the protein.
  • the isolated DNA encodes an imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-resistant variant of AHAS.
  • DNA vectors comprising DNA encoding these AHAS variants, variant AHAS proteins themselves, and cells, grown either in vivo or in cell culture, that express the AHAS variants or comprise these vectors.
  • the present invention provides a method for conferring imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance on a cell or cells and particularly a plant cell or cells such as, for example, a seed.
  • An AHAS gene preferably the Arabidopsis thaliana AHAS gene, is mutated to alter the ability of an imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide to inhibit the enzymatic activity of the AHAS.
  • the mutant gene is cloned into a compatible expression vector, and the gene is transformed into an imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-sensitive cell under conditions in which it is expressed at sufficient levels to confer imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance on the cell.
  • the present invention encompasses the rational design or structure-based molecular modelling of modified versions of the enzyme AHAS and AHAS inhibiting imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicides. These modified enzymes (AHAS variant proteins) are resistant to the action of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicides.
  • the present invention also encompasses DNAs that encode these variants, vectors that include these DNAs, the AHAS variant proteins, and cells that express these variants. Additionally provided are methods for producing imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance in plants by expressing these variants and methods of weed control.
  • the DNA and the AHAS variants of the present invention were discovered in studies that were based on molecular modelling of the structure of AHAS.
  • Imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based Herbicide-resistant variants of AHAS according to the present invention are useful in conferring imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance in plants and can be designed with the POX model
  • Molecular modelling and particularly protein homology modelling techniques can provide an understanding of the structure and activity of a given protein.
  • the structural model of a protein can be determined directly from experimental data such as x-ray crystallography, indirectly by homology modelling or the like, or combinations thereof (See White, et al., Annu. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct., 23 :349, 1994).
  • Elucidation of the three-dimensional structure of AHAS provides a basis for the development of a rational scheme for mutation of particular amino acid residues within AHAS that confer herbicide resistance on the polypeptide.
  • Molecular modelling of the structure of Zea mays AHAS using as a template the known X-ray crystal structure of related pyruvate oxidase (POX) from Lactobacillus plantarum, provides a three-dimensional model of AHAS structure that is useful for the design of herbicide-resistant AHAS variants or AHAS inhibiting herbicides.
  • This modelling procedure takes advantage of the fact that AHAS and POX share a number of biochemical characteristics and may be derived from a common ancestral gene (Chang et al., J.Bacteriol. 170 :3937, 1988).
  • AHAS structure that results from this procedure predicts the approximate spatial organization of the active site of the enzyme and of the binding site or pocket of inhibitors such as herbicides including, but not limited to, imidazolinone herbicides.
  • the model is then refined and re-interpreted based on biochemical studies which are also described below.
  • Protein homology modelling requires the alignment of the primary sequence of the protein under study with a second protein whose crystal structure is known.
  • Pyruvate oxidase (POX) was chosen for AHAS homology modelling because POX and AHAS share a number of biochemical characteristics. For example, both AHAS and POX share aspects of enzymatic reaction mechanisms, as well as cofactor and metal requirements.
  • thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), and a divalent cation are required for enzymatic activity.
  • FAD mediates a redox reaction during catalysis in POX but presumably has only a structural function in AHAS, which is possibly a vestigial remnant from the evolution of AHAS from POX.
  • Both enzymes utilize pyruvate as a substrate and form hydroxyethyl thiamine pyrophosphate as a stable reaction intermediate (Schloss, J.V. et al. In Biosynthesis of branched chain amino acids, Barak, Z.J.M., Chipman, D.M., Schloss, J.V. (eds) VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany, 1990).
  • AHAS activity is present in chimeric POX-AHAS proteins consisting of the N-terminal half of POX and the C-terminal half of AHAS, and there is a small degree of AHAS activity exhibited by POX itself.
  • AHAS and POX also exhibit similar properties in solution (Risse, B. et al, Protein Sci. 1 : 1699 and 1710, 1992; Singh, B.K., & Schmitt, G.K. (1989), FEBS Letters, 258 : 113; Singh, B.K. et al.
  • AHAS and L. plantarum POX sequences were not similar enough for a completely computerized alignment, however. Overall, only about 20% of the amino acids are identical, while about 50% of the residues are of similar class (i.e. acidic, basic, aromatic, and the like). However, if the sequences are compared with respect to hydrophilic and hydrophobic residue classifications, over 500 of the 600 amino acids match. Secondary structure predictions for AHAS (Holley et al., Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.USA 86:152, 1989) revealed a strong similarity to the actual secondary structure of POX. For nearly 70% of the residues, the predicted AHAS secondary structure matches that of POX.
  • POX monomers consist of three domains, all having a central, parallel ⁇ -sheet with crossovers consisting of ⁇ -helices and long loops. (Muller et al., Science 259 :965, 1993). The topology of the sheets differs between the domains, i.e. in the first and third domains, the strands are assembled to the ⁇ -sheet in the sequence 2-1-3-4-6-5, while in the ⁇ -sheet of the second domain, the sequence reads 3-2-1-4-5-6.
  • TPP binding residues are highly conserved between POX and AHAS (e.g. P48-G49-G50). In some cases, residues that were close to TPP differ between POX and AHAS but remain within a region that is highly conserved (for example, residues 90-110). On the other hand, the FAD binding site appeared to be less conserved. Although some FAD binding residues were strongly conserved (for example, D325-I326-D327-P328), others clearly differed between AHAS and POX (for example, residues in the loop from positions 278 to 285 are not homologous.
  • a model for dimeric AHAS was generated by duplicating the coordinates of the energy minimized monomeric AHAS and superimposing the two copies on two POX subunits using pairs of C ⁇ coordinates as defined in the alignment scheme.
  • the polypeptide chain of AHAS folds into three similarly folded domains composed of a six-stranded parallel ⁇ -sheet core surrounded by long "loops" and ⁇ -helices.
  • Two subunits are assembled such that the first domain of one subunit is in close proximity to the cofactor-binding domains 2 and 3 of the other subunit.
  • a solvent-filled space remains between the subunits at this site.
  • This pocket which is defined by the confluence of the three domains, is the proposed entry site for the substrate. It is also proposed to be the binding site for imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicides.
  • the inner surface of said binding pocket is outlined by the cofactors.
  • the thiazol of TPP is positioned at the bottom of the pocket. Domain 3 contributes to the inner surface of the pocket with a short ⁇ -helix that points its axis towards the pyrophosphate of TPP, compensating the phosphate charges with its dipolar moment.
  • This critical helix which starts with G498, a "turn" residue in close contact with TPP, and which ends at F507, contains three known mutation sites for sulfonylurea resistance: V500, W503, and F507 (See, U.S. Patent Nos. 5,013,659; 5,141,870; and 5,378,824).
  • domain 1 the loop defined as P48-S52 (between ⁇ -strand 2 and ⁇ -helix 2) faces W503, a mutation in which confers resistance to imidazolinones. Residues Y47 to G50 are also in contact with TPP. This loop is adjacent to P184-Q189, another turn, which connects the last strand of the ⁇ -sheet of domain 1 with a ⁇ -strand that connects with domain 2. Within the pocket, near its entrance, is a long region of domain 1 that interacts with a complementary stretch of domain 2. Residues 125-129 and 133-137 of domain 1 and residues 304-313 of domain 2 are at the surface of the pocket. A turn consisting of T96-G100 is between loop 125-129 and TPP.
  • a further stretch of domain 3 and two regions of domain 2 that line the binding pocket are at the opposite corner of the pocket.
  • Residues 572, 575, 582, and 583 of domain 3 define the pocket surface on one side.
  • the remaining part of the interior of the pocket's surface is defined by FAD and by a loop, L278-G282, that contacts the isoalloxazine ring of FAD.
  • Imazethapyr the active imidazolinone in PURSUIT®, was positioned into its proposed binding site using interactive molecular graphics ( Figure 4) and the software described above ( Figure 4).
  • K185 was chosen as an "anchor" to interact with the charge of the carboxyl group.
  • the imidazolinone's NH-CO unit was placed to form hydrogen bonds to G50 and A51. This positioned the methyl substitute of imazethapyr close to V500 on the backbone of the small ⁇ -helix.
  • the isopropyl group is possibly bound by hydrophobic residues of the amino acids in the region of residues 125-135 that contribute to the inner surface of the pocket.
  • the pyridine ring is most probably "sandwiched" between A134 or F135, F507 and W503.
  • W503 also interacts with the imidazolinone ring system.
  • the sulfonylurea herbicides were modelled into a site that partially overlapped the described imidazolinone binding site. Overlap of sulfonylurea and imidazolinone binding sites was consistent with competition binding experiments and with established mutant data, which show that the same mutation in maize, W503L, can confer resistance to both herbicides. In these models, most of the known mutation sites that confer sulfonylurea herbicide resistance, i.e. G50, A51, K185, V500, W503, F507, are in close contact to the bound herbicides. P126 and A51 are required for keeping the K185 side chain in place by generating a hydrophobic pore.
  • S582 a site for specific imidazolinone resistance, is distant from the binding region and is located in the region where the homology is so poor that a change in the fold is expected.
  • the FAD binding site apparently has low homology between AHAS and POX in this region;
  • S582 is a residue that confers resistance in maize, and that S582 and its adjacent residues are in close contact to the active site pocket. It is proposed that FAD and the loop region encompassing residues 278 to 285 move slightly away from the third domain, (downward in Figure 4) and that a loop that contains S582 folds into the space between the helix at positions 499 to 507 and the loop at positions 278 to 285.
  • D305 another known resistance site, is close to FAD and modulates the interaction between domains 1 and 2.
  • M280 may either be involved in positioning of the helix at positions 498 to 507 or directly in inhibitor binding.
  • M280 and D305 could also be directly involved in inhibitor binding if domains 1 and 2 move slightly closer to each other.
  • Specific amino acid residues are pinpointed as sites for the introduction of mutations into the primary sequence of AHAS. These amino acids are selected based upon their position in that if that amino acid residue position is modified, there will be a resultant alteration (i.e. decline) in the affinity of an herbicide for the binding pocket. It is not necessary that the mutation position reside in the binding pocket as amino acid residues outside the pocket itself can alter the pocket charge or configuration.
  • the selection of target sites for mutation is achieved using molecular models as described above.
  • arginine at position 128 (designated R128 in Figure 1 using the single-letter code for amino acids) is located near the entrance to the substrate- and imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-binding pocket and has a large degree of conformational freedom that may allow it to participate in transport of charged herbicides into the binding pocket. Therefore, this residue is substituted by alanine to remove both its charge and its long hydrophobic side chain. The resulting mutation is designated R128A.
  • the mutations may comprise simple substitutions, which replace the wild-type sequence with any other amino acid.
  • the mutations may comprise deletions or additions of one or more amino acids, preferably up to 5, at a given site.
  • the added sequence may comprise an amino acid sequence known to exist in another protein, or may comprise a completely synthetic sequence.
  • more than one mutation and/or more than one type of mutation may be introduced into a single polypeptide.
  • the DNA encoding AHAS can be manipulated so as to introduce the desired mutations. Mutagenesis is carried out using methods that are standard in the art, as described in, for example, Higuchi, R., Recombinant PCR, In M.A. Innis, et al., eds, PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications, Academic Press, pp. 177-183, 1990.
  • the mutated or variant AHAS sequence is cloned into a DNA expression vector (see, e.g., Example 3) and is expressed in a suitable cell such as, for example, E. coli.
  • a suitable cell such as, for example, E. coli.
  • the DNA encoding AHAS is linked to a transcription regulatory element, and the variant AHAS is expressed as part of a fusion protein, for example, glutathione-S-transferase, to facilitate purification (see Example 3 below).
  • the variant AHAS is then purified using affinity chromatography or any other suitable method known in the art.
  • Purification of an AHAS polypeptide refers to the isolation of the AHAS polypeptide in a form that allows its enzymatic activity to be measured without interference by other components of the cell in which the polypeptide is expressed.
  • the purified variant AHAS may be assayed for one or more of the following three properties:
  • Suitable assay systems for making these determinations include, but are not limited to, those described in detail in Example 4 below.
  • variant AHAS polypeptides are compared to the wild-type AHAS.
  • a given mutation results in an AHAS variant polypeptide that retains in vitro enzymatic activity towards pyruvate or pyruvate and 2-ketobutyrate, i.e., the conversion of pyruvate to acetolactate or in the condensation of pyruvate and 2-ketobutyrate to form acetohydroxybutyrate (and thus is expected to be biologically active in vivo), while exhibiting catalytic activity that is relatively more resistant to the selected herbicide(s) than is wild-type AHAS.
  • the variant AHAS exhibits:
  • any one specific AHAS variant protein need not have the total catalytic activity necessary to maintain the viability of the cell, but must have some catalytic activity in an amount, alone or in combination with the catalytic activity of additional copies of the same AHAS variant and/or the catalytic activity of other AHAS variant protein(s), sufficient to maintain the viability of a cell that requires AHAS activity for viability.
  • catalytic activity may be increased to minimum acceptable levels by introducing multiple copies of a variant encoding gene into the cell or by introducing the gene which further includes a relatively strong promoter to enhance the production of the variant.
  • More resistant means that the catalytic activity of the variant is diminished by the imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide(s), if at all, to a lesser degree than wild-type AHAS catalytic activity is diminished by the imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide(s).
  • Preferred more resistant variant AHAS retains sufficient catalytic to maintain the viability of a cell, plant, or organism wherein at the same concentration of the same imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide(s), wild-type AHAS would not retain sufficient catalytic activity to maintain the viability of the cell, plant, or organism.
  • the catalytic activity in the absence of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide(s) is at least about 5% and, most preferably, is more than about 20% of the catalytic activity of the wild-type AHAS in the absence of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide(s).
  • Most preferred AHAS variants are more resistant to imidazolinone herbicides than to other herbicides such as sulfonylurea-based herbicides, though in some applications selectivity is neither needed nor preferred.
  • the AHAS variant protein has
  • AHAS variants having the desired properties of high enzymatic activity as explained above and resistance to one or more classes of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicides.
  • mutation of a wild-type AHAS sequence at a particular position to a given amino acid may result in a mutant that exhibits a high degree of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance but a significant loss of enzymatic activity towards pyruvate or pyruvate and 2-ketobutyrate.
  • the starting or target AHAS polypeptide would then be this variant (in place of the wild-type AHAS).
  • Rational design then involves substituting other amino acids at the originally mutated position and/or adding or deleting amino acids at selected points or ranges in the expectation of retaining imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance but also maintaining a higher level of enzymatic activity.
  • the structure-based rational design of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistant AHAS proteins offers many advantages over conventional approaches that rely on random mutagenesis and selection. For example, when substitution of a particular amino acid with another requires substitution of more than one nucleotide within the codon, the likelihood of this occurring randomly is so low as to be impractical. By contrast, even double or triple changes in nucleotide sequence within a codon can be easily implemented when suggested by a rational design approach. For example, one rationally designed mutation to confer selective imidazolinone resistance requires a change from arginine to glutamate.
  • Arginine is encoded by CGT, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG, while glutamate is encoded by GAA and GAG. Since none of the arginine codons begins with GA, this mutation would require a double substitution of adjacent nucleotides which would occur so rarely using random mutagenesis as to be unpredictable and unrepeatable with any certainty of success. Although mutation frequency can be increased during random mutagenesis, alterations in nucleotide sequence would have an equal probability of occurring throughout the AHAS gene, in the absence of prior site-direction of the mutations. This increases the chance of obtaining an irrelevant mutation that interferes with enzymatic activity.
  • double amino acid substitution and/or deletion mutations are relatively easily achieved and precisely targeted.
  • different mutagens used in random mutagenesis create specific types of mutations. For example, sodium azide creates point substitution mutations in plants, while radiation tends to create deletions. Accordingly, two mutagenesis protocols would have to be employed to obtain a multiple combination substitution/deletion.
  • the present structure-based method for rational design of herbicide-resistant AHAS variants allows for iterative improvement of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance mutations, a step that is not facilitated by random mutagenesis. Identification of a mutation site for imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance by random mutagenesis may offer little, if any, predictive value for guiding further improvements in the characteristics of the mutant.
  • the present structure-based approach allows improvements to be implemented based on the position, environment, and function of the amino acid position in the structural model.
  • the iterative improvement method also allows the independent manipulation of three important properties of AHAS: level of resistance, selectivity of resistance, and catalytic efficiency.
  • compensatory mutations can be designed in a predictive manner. If a particular mutation has a deleterious effect on the activity of an enzyme, a second compensatory mutation may be used to restore activity. For example, a change in the net charge within a domain when a charged residue is introduced or lost due to a mutation can be compensated by introducing a second mutation. Prediction of the position and type of residue(s) to introduce, delete, or substitute at the second site in order to restore enzymatic activity requires a knowledge of structure-function relationships derived from a model such as that described herein.
  • Herbicide-Resistant AHAS Variants DNA, Vectors, and Polypeptides
  • the present invention also encompasses isolated DNA molecules encoding variant imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-resistant AHAS polypeptides.
  • Genes encoding AHAS polypeptides according to the present invention may be derived from any species and preferably a plant species, and mutations conferring imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance may be introduced at equivalent positions within any of these AHAS genes.
  • the equivalence of a given codon position in different AHAS genes is a function of both the conservation of primary amino acid sequence and its protein and the retention of similar three-dimensional structure.
  • Figure 5 illustrates the high degree of sequence homology between AHAS polypeptides derived from different plant species. These AHAS polypeptides exhibit at least about 60 to about 70% overall homology. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that in regions of the polypeptide having a highly conserved sequence, the polypeptide chain conformation will also be preserved. Thus, it is possible to use an AHAS-encoding sequence from one species for molecular modelling, to introduce mutations predictively into an AHAS gene from a second species for initial testing and iterative improvement, and finally, to introduce the optimized mutations into AHAS derived from yet a third plant species for expression in a transgenic plant.
  • these AHAS DNAs encode variants of an AHAS polypeptide and preferably of the maize AHAS polypeptide of Figure 1 in which the polypeptide is modified by substitution at or deletion of amino acid residues M53, R128, F135.
  • the present invention encompasses DNA and corresponding RNA sequences, as well as sense and antisense sequences.
  • Nucleic acid sequences encoding AHAS polypeptides may be flanked by natural AHAS regulatory sequences, or may be associated with heterologous sequences, including promoters, enhancers, response elements, signal sequences, polyadenylation sequences, introns, 5'- and 3'- noncoding regions, and the like.
  • the nucleic acids can be modified to alter stability, solubility, binding affinity and specificity.
  • variant AHAS-encoding sequences can be selectively methylated.
  • the nucleic acid sequences of the present invention may also be modified with a label capable of providing a detectable signal, either directly or indirectly. Exemplary labels include radioisotopes, fluorescent molecules, biotin, and the like.
  • the invention also provides vectors comprising nucleic acids encoding AHAS variants.
  • vectors comprising nucleic acids encoding AHAS variants.
  • a large number of vectors, including plasmid and fungal vectors, have been described for expression in a variety of eukaryotic and prokaryotic hosts.
  • vectors may also include a promotor operably linked to the AHAS encoding portion.
  • the encoded AHAS may be expressed by using any suitable vectors and host cells, using methods disclosed or cited herein or otherwise known to those skilled in the relevant art. Examples of suitable vectors include without limitation pBIN-based vectors, pBluescript vectors, and pGEM vectors.
  • the present invention also encompasses both variant imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-resistant AHAS polypeptides or peptide fragments thereof.
  • the variant AHAS polypeptides may be derived from the maize polypeptide shown in Figure 1 or from any plant or microbial AHAS polypeptide, preferably plant AHAS polypeptide.
  • the polypeptides may be further modified by, for example, phosphorylation, sulfation, acylation, glycosylation, or other protein modifications.
  • the polypeptides may be isolated from plants, or from heterologous organisms or cells (including, but not limited to, bacteria, yeast, insect, plant, and mammalian cells) into which the gene encoding a variant AHAS polypeptide has been introduced and expressed.
  • AHAS polypeptides may be modified with a label capable of providing a detectable signal, either directly or indirectly, including radioisotopes, fluorescent compounds, and the like.
  • the present invention encompasses transgenic cells, including, but not limited to seeds, organisms, and plants into which genes encoding imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-resistant AHAS variants have been introduced.
  • suitable recipient plants are listed in Table 1 below: TABLE 1 RECIPIENT PLANTS COMMON NAME FAMILY LATIN NAME Maize Gramineae Zea mays Maize, Dent Gramineae Zea mays dentiformis Maize, Flint Gramineae Zea mays vulgaris Maize, Pop Gramineae Zea mays microsperma Maize, Soft Gramineae Zea mays amylacea Maize, Sweet Gramineae Zea mays amyleasaccharata Maize, Sweet Gramineae Zea mays saccharate Maize, Waxy Gramineae Zea mays ceratina Wheat, Dinkel Pooideae Triticum spelta Wheat, Durum Pooideae Triticum
  • AHAS polypeptides in transgenic plants confers a high level of resistance to imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicides including imazethapyr (PURSUIT®), allowing the use of these imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicides during cultivation of the transgenic plants.
  • PURSUIT® imazethapyr
  • Non-limiting examples of such methods include Agrobacterium infection, particle bombardment, polyethylene glycol (PEG) treatment of protoplasts, electroporation of protoplasts, microinjection, macroinjection, tiller injection, pollen tube pathway, dry seed imbibition, laser perforation, and electrophoresis.
  • PEG polyethylene glycol
  • the DNA encoding a variant AHAS is cloned into a DNA vector containing an antibiotic resistance marker gene, and the recombinant AHAS DNA-containing plasmid is introduced into Agrobacterium tumefaciens containing a Ti plasmid.
  • This "binary vector system" is described in, for example, U.S. Patent No. 4, 490,838, and in An et al., Plant Mol.Biol.Manual A3 :1-19 (1988).
  • the transformed Agrobacterium is then co-cultivated with leaf disks from the recipient plant to allow infection and transformation of plant cells.
  • Transformed plant cells are then cultivated in regeneration medium, which promotes the formation of shoots, first in the presence of the appropriate antibiotic to select for transformed cells, then in the presence of herbicide.
  • plant cells successfully transformed with DNA encoding imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-resistant AHAS shoot formation occurs even in the presence of levels of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide that inhibit shoot formation from non-transformed cells.
  • transformed plants are tested for their ability to withstand imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide spraying and for their capabilities for seed germination and root initiation and proliferation in the presence of herbicide.
  • PCR polymerase chain reaction
  • compositions of the present invention can be used in the structure-based rational design of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-resistant AHAS variants, which can be incorporated into plants to confer selective imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance on the plants.
  • Imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based Herbicide resistant AHAS genes can be transformed into crop species in single or multiple copies to confer imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide resistance.
  • Genetic engineering of crop species with reduced sensitivity to imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicides can:
  • transgenic AHAS variant protein containing plants can be cultivated.
  • the crop can be treated with a weed controlling effective amount of the imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide to which the AHAS variant transgenic plant is resistant, resulting in weed control in the crop without detrimentally affecting the cultivated crop.
  • the DNA vectors described above that encode imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-resistant AHAS variants can be further utilized so that expression of the AHAS variant provides a selectable marker for transformation of cells by the vector.
  • the intended recipient cells may be in culture or in situ, and the AHAS variant genes may be used alone or in combination with other selectable markers. The only requirement is that the recipient cell is sensitive to the cytotoxic effects of the cognate herbicide.
  • This embodiment takes advantage of the relative low cost and lack of toxicity of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicides, and may be applied in any system that requires DNA-mediated transformation.
  • Example 1 Design of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-resistant AHAS variants
  • Residues located close to the proposed imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide binding site of the model described in detail above were selected for mutagenesis in order to design an active AHAS polypeptide with decreased imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide binding capacity.
  • Each site at the surface of the pocket was considered in terms of potential interactions with other residues in the pocket, as well as with cofactors and imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicides.
  • addition of positively charged residue(s) is expected to interfere with the charge distribution within the binding site, resulting in a loss in affinity of binding of a imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide.
  • Example 2 Site-directed mutagenesis of AHAS to produce imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based herbicide-registant variants
  • the Arabidopsis AHAS gene was inserted in-frame to the 3' end of the coding region of the glutathione S-transferase gene in the pGEX-2T vector (Pharmacia). Construction of the vector in this manner maintained the six amino acid thrombin recognition sequence at the junction of the expressed glutathione-S-transferase (GST)/AHAS fusion protein. Thrombin digestion of the expressed fusion protein results in an AHAS protein with an N-terminal starting position at the end of the transit peptide at a putative transit peptide processing site, with a residual N-terminal glycine derived from the thrombin recognition site. The final amino terminus of the cleaved AHAS protein consists of Gly-Ser-Ser-Ile-Ser. Site-directed mutations were introduced into the AHAS gene in this vector.
  • Site-directed mutations were constructed according to the PCR method of Higuchi (Recombinant PCR . In MA Innis, et al. PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications, Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 177-183, 1990). Two PCR products, each of which overlap the mutation site, were amplified. The primers in the overlap region contained the mutation. The overlapping PCR amplified fragments were combined, denatured, and allowed to re-anneal together, producing two possible heteroduplex products with recessed 3'-ends. The recessed 3' -ends were extended by Taq DNA polymerase to produce a fragment that was the sum of the two overlapping PCR products containing the desired mutation.
  • E. Coli (DH5 ⁇ ) cells transformed with the pGEX-2T vector containing either the maize wild type AHAS gene (vector designation pAC751), the Arabidopsis Ser653Asn mutant, or the Arabidopsis Ile401Phe mutant were grown overnight in LB broth containing 50 ⁇ g/mL ampicillin.
  • the overnight culture of E . coli was diluted 1:10 in 1 L LB, 50 ⁇ g/mL ampicillin, and 0.1% v/v antifoam A. The culture was incubated at 37°C with shaking until the OD 600 reached approximately 0.8.
  • Isopropylthiogalactose (IPTG) was added to a final concentration of 1 mM and the culture was incubated for 3 more hours.
  • Cells were harvested by centrifugation at 8,670 xg for 10 minutes in a JA-10 rotor and resuspended in 1/100th of the original culture volume in MTPBS (16 mM Na 2 HPO 4 , 4 mM NaH 2 PO 4 , 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.3). Triton X-100 and lysozyme were added to a final concentration of 1% v/v and 100 ⁇ g/mL, respectively. Cells were incubated at 30°C for 15 minutes cooled to 4°C on ice, and were lysed by sonication for 10 seconds at level 7 with a Branson Sonifier Cell Disrupter equipped with a microtip probe. The cell free extract was centrifuged at 35,000 xg for 10 min. at 4°C. The supernatant was decanted and the centrifugation step was repeated.
  • MTPBS 16 mM Na 2 HPO 4 , 4 mM NaH 2 PO 4 , 150 mM
  • fusion proteins Purification of expressed fusion proteins was performed as modified from Smith and Johnson (Gene 67 :31-40, 1988). The supernatant was warmed to room temperature and was passed through a 2 mL column of glutathione-agarose beads (sulfur linkage, Sigma) equilibrated in MTPBS. The column was subsequently washed with MTPBS at room temperature until the A 280 of eluant matched that of MTPBS. The fusion protein was then eluted using a solution containing 5 mM reduced glutathione in 50 mM Tris HCL, pH 8.0. The eluted fusion protein was treated with approximately 30 NIH units of thrombin and dialyzed against 50 mM citrate pH 6.5 and 150 mM NaCl.
  • the fusion protein was digested overnight at room temperature. Digested samples were dialyzed against MTPBS and passed twice through a glutathione-agarose column equilibrated in MTPBS to remove the released glutathione transferase protein. The protein fraction that did not bind to the column was collected and was concentrated by ultrafiltration on a YM10 filter (Amicon). The concentrated sample was loaded onto a 1.5 x 95 cm Sephacryl S-100 gel filtration column equilibrated in gel filtration buffer (50 mM HEPES, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.0). Two mL fractions were collected at a flow rate of 0.14 mL/min.
  • Enzyme stability was tested by storage of the enzyme at 4°C in gel filtration buffer with the addition of 0.02% sodium azide and in the presence or absence of 2 mM thiamine pyrophosphate and 100 ⁇ M flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).
  • FAD flavin adenine dinucleotide
  • the 91 kD protein exhibited the predicted molecular mass of a GST/AHAS fusion protein (the sum of 26 kD and 65 kD, respectively).
  • the six amino acid thrombin recognition site engineered in the junction of GST and AHAS was successfully cleaved by thrombin (Figure 6, lane D).
  • the cleaved fusion protein preparation consisted of the expected 26 kD GST protein and the 65 kD maize AHAS protein.
  • Maize AHAS was purified to homogeneity by a second pass through the glutathione-agarose column to affinity subtract GST and subjected to a final Sephacryl S-100 gel filtration step to eliminated thrombin ( Figure 6, lane E).
  • the 65 kD protein is recognized on western blots by a monoclonal antibody raised against a maize AHAS peptide.
  • Purified wild type maize AHAS was analyzed by electrospray mass spectrometry and was determined to have a molecular mass of 64,996 daltons (data not shown).
  • the predicted mass as calculated from the deduced amino acid sequence of the gene inserted into the pGEX-2T vector, is 65,058.
  • the 0.096% discrepancy between the empirically determined and predicted mass was within tuning variability of the mass spectrometer.
  • the close proximity of the two mass determinations suggests that there were no misincorporated nucleotides during construction of the expression vector, nor any post-translational modifications to the protein that would cause gross changes in molecular mass.
  • the lack of spurious peaks in the preparation of purified enzyme indicated that the sample was free of contamination.
  • a reaction mixture containing 1X AHAS assay buffer (50 mM HEPES pH 7.0, 100 mM pyruvate, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 1 mM thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), and 50 ⁇ M flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) was obtained either by dilution of enzyme in 2X assay buffer or by addition of concentrated enzyme to 1X AHAS assay buffer.
  • All assays containing imazethapyr and associated controls contained a final concentration of 5% DMSO due to addition of imazethapyr to assay mixtures as a 50% DMSO solution. Assays were performed in a final volume of 250 ⁇ L at 37°C in microtiter plates. After allowing the reaction to proceed for 60 minutes, acetolactate accumulation was measured colorimetrically as described by Singh et al., Anal . Biochem 171 : 173-179, 1988.
  • Maize AHAS expressed and purified from pAC751 as described in Example 3 above is active in the conversion of pyruvate to acetolactate. Full AHAS activity is dependent on the presence of the cofactors FAD and TPP in the assay medium. No activity was detected when only FAD was added to the assay medium. The activity of the purified enzyme with TPP only, or with no cofactors, was less than 1% of the activity detected in the presence of both TPP and FAD. Normally, AHAS present in crude plant extracts is very labile, particularly in the absence of substrate and cofactors.
  • the purified AHAS from the bacterial expression system showed no loss in catalytic activity when stored for one month at 4°C in 50 mM HEPES pH 7.0, 150 mM NaCl, 0.02% NaN 3 in the presence or absence of FAD and TPP. Furthermore, no degradation products were visible from these stored preparations when resolved in SDS-PAGE gels.
  • the M124E mutation in Arabidopsis AHAS is the equivalent of the maize M53E mutation
  • the R199A mutation in Arabidopsis is the equivalent of the maize R128A mutation
  • the F206R mutation in Arabidopsis is the equivalent of the maize F135R mutation.
  • the mutations designed in the maize AHAS structural model were used to identify the equivalent amino acid in the dicot Arabidopsis AHAS gene and were incorporated and tested in the Arabidopsis AHAS gene.
  • the R199A mutation maintains a high level of catalytic activity (Table 2) while exhibiting a significant level of resistance to imazethapyr ( Figure 7). Notably, this variant retains complete sensitivity to sulfonylureas ( Figure 8). Thus, this variant fulfills the criteria of high specific activity and selective herbicide resistance.
  • the M124E substitution resulted in almost complete resistance to imazethapyr ( Figure 7) but also exhibited severely reduced catalytic activity (Table 2). Relative to imidazolinone resistance, this variant exhibits greater sensitivity to sulfonylurea (Figure 8), suggesting that this residue is a good candidate for creating a mutation that confers selective resistance. Substitution of an amino acid other than glutamic acid may help to maintain catalytic activity.
  • the F206R substitution yielded similar results to those observed with M124E variant, but lacked selectivity in resistance.
  • the activity of the original Arabidopsis Met124Glu (equivalent to maize Met53Glu) mutant enzyme was then iteratively improved by substituting a more hydrophobic amino acid (Ile) at this position.
  • the hydrophobic nature of the Ile side chain resulted in restoration of activity to wild type levels (specific activity of 102, equivalent to 102% of the wild-type activity) , but the greater bulk of the Ile side chain was still able to maintain a significant level of imidazolinone resistance (Figure 9).
  • Arg128Ala variant Another example of iterative refinement using the methods of the present invention involves the Arg128Ala variant.
  • the structural model of maize AHAS suggested that the Arg128 residue, which resides at the lip of the herbicide binding pocket, contributes to channeling charged substrates and herbicides into the herbicide binding pocket and into the active site.
  • the Arg 128 residue is distant from the TPP moiety, which binds the initial pyruvate molecule in the reaction mechanism of AHAS, explaining why the substitution of Arabidopsis AHAS Arg199 (the equivalent to maize Arg128) to alanine had little effect on the catalytic activity of the enzyme.
  • the structural model further indicated that a more radical change could be made at this position to raise the level of resistance while maintaining high levels of catalytic activity.
  • an iterative improvement of the mutation was made to substitute the positively charge arginine residue with a negatively charged glutamate residue.
  • the enzyme thus mutated had improved levels of resistance to PURSUIT® while maintaining high levels of activity (specific activity of 114, equivalent to 114% of the wild-type activity) (Figure 11).
  • Example 7 Interchangeability of AHAS Derived From Different Species in Structure-Based Rational Design of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based Herbicide-Resistant AHAS Variants
  • a structural model of the three-dimensional structure of AHAS is built with a monocot AHAS sequence such as that derived from maize, as described above.
  • a monocot AHAS sequence such as that derived from maize, as described above.
  • the sequences of AHAS derived from the monocot and dicot species are aligned using the GAP and PILEUP programs (Genetics Computer Group, 575 Sequence Drive, Madison, WI 53711). Equivalent positions are determined from the computer-generated alignment.
  • the mutations are then introduced into the dicot AHAS gene as described above.
  • the mutant gene is introduced into a dicot plant by plant transformation methods as described above.
  • Example 8 Production of imidazolinone and/or sulfonylurea based Herbicide-Resistant Plants by Transformation with Rationally Designed AHAS Genes
  • AHAS variant genes contained within E. coli expression vectors were used as a source of DNA restriction fragments to replace the equivalent restriction fragment in a Arabidopsis AHAS gene.
  • This gene is present in a 5.5 kb genomic DNA fragment which also contains the Arabidopsis AHAS promoter, the Arabidopsis AHAS termination sequence and 5' - and 3'-flanking DNA.
  • DNA sequencing through the mutation sites was performed to confirm the presence of the proper mutation, the entire 5.5 kb fragment from each plasmid was inserted into a pBIN based plant transformation vector (Mogen, Leiden, Netherlands).
  • the plant transformation vector also contains the neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII) kanamycin resistance gene driven by the 35S cauliflower mosaic virus promoter.
  • nptII neomycin phosphotransferase II
  • the final vector construct is displayed in Figure 12.
  • Vectors containing Arabidopsis AHAS genes with Met124Ile, Met124His, and Arg199Glu mutations (corresponding to Met53Ile, Met53His, and Arg128G1u mutations in the maize AHAS sequence as shown in Figure 1) were labeled pJK002, pJK003, and pJK004, respectively.
  • Leaf disc transformation of Nicotiana tabacum cv. Wisconsin 38 was performed as described by Horsch et al. ( Science , 227 : 1229-1231, 1985) with slight modifications.
  • Leaf discs were cut from plants grown under sterile conditions and co-cultivated upsidedown in Murashige Skoog media (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) for 2-3 days at 25°C in darkness with Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains containing plasmids pJK002, pJK003, or pJK004.
  • the discs were blotted dry and transferred to regeneration Murashige Skoog medium with B5 vitamins containing 1 mg/L benzyladenine and 0.1 mg/l 1-Napthyl Acetic Acid, 100 mg/L kanamycin, and 500 mg/L cefotaxime (all obtained from Sigma).
  • transformants were selected by kanamycin resistance conferred by the nptII gene present in the transformation vector.
  • Shoots derived from the leaf discs were excised and placed on fresh Murashige Skoog hormone free media containing cefotaxime and kanamycin.
  • Kanamycin-resistant tobacco shoots were transferred to medium containing a 0.25 ⁇ M imazethapyr.
  • the imidazolinone herbicide At this concentration of the imidazolinone herbicide, non-transformed tobacco shoots (containing endogenous wild-type AHAS) were not able to initiate root formation.
  • root initiation and growth were observed from tobacco shoots transformed with each of the mutant AHAS genes.
  • Roots developed from shoots transformed with the Met124Ile and Arg199Glu mutant genes along with wild type are shown in Figure 1.
  • plants transformed with the Met124Ile or Arg199Glu mutant genes were resistant to spraying with twice the field rate (100 g/ha) of imazethapyr ( Figure 13).
  • the patterns of root growth in transformed vs. non-transformed plants in the presence of herbicide, as well as the behavior after herbicide spraying suggest that expression of the rationally designed herbicide resistance genes confers herbicide resistance in vivo .
  • Tobacco plants transformed with rationally designed AHAS genes as described in Example 8 above were also tested for cross-resistance to another herbicide, CL 299,263 (also known as imazamox). Germination tests were performed on seeds harvested from the primary transformants containing the Met124Ile, Met124His, and Argl99Glu Arabidopsis AHAS variant genes, in the absence or presence of 2.5 ⁇ M CL 299,263 ( Figure 15). This concentration of the herbicide causes severe stunting and bleaching of wild-type tobacco plants. Tobacco plants transformed with the Met124His AHAS gene showed the greatest level of resistance (Figure 15). Arg199Glu transformants showed an intermediate level of resistance, while Met124Ile showed little resistance ( Figure 15).

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