US20160046961A1 - Methods and Compositions for RNA-Directed Target DNA Modification and For RNA-Directed Modulation of Transcription - Google Patents

Methods and Compositions for RNA-Directed Target DNA Modification and For RNA-Directed Modulation of Transcription Download PDF

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US20160046961A1
US20160046961A1 US14/403,475 US201314403475A US2016046961A1 US 20160046961 A1 US20160046961 A1 US 20160046961A1 US 201314403475 A US201314403475 A US 201314403475A US 2016046961 A1 US2016046961 A1 US 2016046961A1
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dna
rna
site
activity
cell
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Inventor
Martin Jinek
Emmanuelle Charpentier
Krzysztof Chylinski
James Harrison Doudna Cate
Wendell Lim
Lei Qi
Jennifer A. DOUDNA
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Universitaet Wien
University of California Berkeley
University of California San Diego UCSD
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Priority to US14/403,475 priority Critical patent/US20160046961A1/en
Publication of US20160046961A1 publication Critical patent/US20160046961A1/en
Assigned to UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA reassignment UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: CHYLINSKI, Krzysztof
Assigned to THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA reassignment THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: JINEK, MARTIN, DOUDNA, JENNIFER A., CATE, JAMES HARRISON DOUDNA, LIM, WENDELL A., QI, Lei S.
Assigned to THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA reassignment THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CORRECTIVE ASSIGNMENT TO CORRECT THE LAST NAME OF THE 4TH INVENTOR PREVIOUSLY RECORDED AT REEL: 038554 FRAME: 0746. ASSIGNOR(S) HEREBY CONFIRMS THE ASSIGNMENT. Assignors: JINEK, MARTIN, DOUDNA, JENNIFER A., DOUDNA CATE, James Harrison, LIM, WENDELL A., QI, Lei S.
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    • C12N2800/80—Vectors containing sites for inducing double-stranded breaks, e.g. meganuclease restriction sites
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12Y—ENZYMES
    • C12Y301/00—Hydrolases acting on ester bonds (3.1)
    • C12Y301/04—Phosphoric diester hydrolases (3.1.4)
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02A—TECHNOLOGIES FOR ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02A50/00—TECHNOLOGIES FOR ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE in human health protection, e.g. against extreme weather
    • Y02A50/30—Against vector-borne diseases, e.g. mosquito-borne, fly-borne, tick-borne or waterborne diseases whose impact is exacerbated by climate change

Definitions

  • CRISPR clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
  • Cas CRISPR-associated
  • Type II CRISPR system from Streptococcus pyogenes involves only a single gene encoding the Cas9 protein and two RNAs—a mature CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and a partially complementary trans-acting RNA (tracrRNA)—which are necessary and sufficient for RNA-guided silencing of foreign DNAs.
  • crRNA mature CRISPR RNA
  • tracrRNA partially complementary trans-acting RNA
  • RNA interference RNA interference
  • the present disclosure provides a DNA-targeting RNA that comprises a targeting sequence and, together with a modifying polypeptide, provides for site-specific modification of a target DNA and/or a polypeptide associated with the target DNA.
  • the present disclosure further provides site-specific modifying polypeptides.
  • the present disclosure further provides methods of site-specific modification of a target DNA and/or a polypeptide associated with the target DNA.
  • the present disclosure provides methods of modulating transcription of a target nucleic acid in a target cell, generally involving contacting the target nucleic acid with an enzymatically inactive Cas9 polypeptide and a DNA-targeting RNA. Kits and compositions for carrying out the methods are also provided.
  • the present disclosure provides genetically modified cells that produce Cas9; and Cas9 transgenic non-human multicellular organisms.
  • RNA-targeting RNA comprising: (i) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (ii) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the first segment comprises 8 nucleotides that have 100% complementarity to a sequence in the target DNA.
  • the second segment comprises a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-682 (e.g., 431-562).
  • the second segment comprises a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:563-682.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • a DNA polynucleotide comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a recombinant expression vector comprises the DNA polynucleotide.
  • the nucleotide sequence encoding the DNA-targeting RNA is operably linked to a promoter.
  • the promoter is an inducible promoter.
  • the nucleotide sequence encoding the DNA-targeting RNA further comprises a multiple cloning site.
  • features of the present disclosure include an in vitro genetically modified host cell comprising the DNA polynucleotide.
  • a recombinant expression vector comprising: (i) a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a nucleotide sequence encoding the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a recombinant expression vector comprising: (i) a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a nucleotide sequence encoding the site-directed modifying polypeptide, where the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • variant site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (i) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (ii) an activity portion that exhibits reduced site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the variant site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an H840A mutation of the S. pyogenes sequence SEQ ID NO:8 or the corresponding mutation in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the variant site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises a D10A mutation of the S. pyogenes sequence SEQ ID NO:8 or the corresponding mutation in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the variant site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises both (i) a D10A mutation of the S. pyogenes sequence SEQ ID NO:8 or the corresponding mutation in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346; and (ii) an H840A mutation of the S. pyogenes sequence SEQ ID NO:8 or the corresponding mutation in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (i) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (ii) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide of comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA further comprises a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-682 (e.g., SEQ ID NOs:563-682). In some cases, the DNA-targeting RNA further comprises a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562.
  • the enzymatic activity of the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide modifies the target DNA.
  • the enzymatic activity of the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is nuclease activity, methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, DNA repair activity, DNA damage activity, deamination activity, dismutase activity, alkylation activity, depurination activity, oxidation activity, pyrimidine dimer forming activity, integrase activity, transposase activity, recombinase activity, polymerase activity, ligase activity, helicase activity, photolyase activity or glycosylase activity.
  • the enzymatic activity of the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is nuclease activity.
  • the nuclease activity introduces a double strand break in the target DNA.
  • the enzymatic activity of the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide modifies a target polypeptide associated with the target DNA.
  • the enzymatic activity of the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity, deubiquitinating activity, adenylation activity, deadenylation activity, SUMOylating activity, deSUMOylating activity, ribosylation activity, deribosylation activity, myristoylation activity or demyristoylation activity.
  • polynucleotide comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the polynucleotide is an RNA polynucleotide.
  • the polynucleotide is a DNA polynucleotide.
  • features of the present disclosure include a recombinant expression vector comprising the polynucleotide.
  • the polynucleotide is operably linked to a promoter.
  • the promoter is an inducible promoter.
  • features of the present disclosure include an in vitro genetically modified host cell comprising the polynucleotide.
  • a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (i) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (ii) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the activity portion increases transcription within the target DNA.
  • the activity portion decreases transcription within the target DNA.
  • a genetically modified cell comprising a recombinant site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising an RNA-binding portion that interacts with a DNA-targeting RNA; and an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the cell is selected from the group consisting of: an archaeal cell, a bacterial cell, a eukaryotic cell, a eukaryotic single-cell organism, a somatic cell, a germ cell, a stem cell, a plant cell, an algal cell, an animal cell, in invertebrate cell, a vertebrate cell, a fish cell, a frog cell, a bird cell, a mammalian cell, a pig cell, a cow cell, a goat cell, a sheep cell, a rodent cell, a rat cell, a mouse cell, a non-human primate cell, and a human cell.
  • an archaeal cell a bacterial cell, a eukaryotic cell, a eukaryotic single-cell organism, a somatic cell, a germ cell, a stem cell, a plant cell, an algal cell, an animal cell, in invertebrate cell, a vertebrate cell, a fish cell,
  • transgenic non-human organism whose genome comprises a transgene comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a recombinant site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (i) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with a DNA-targeting RNA; and (ii) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG.
  • the organism is selected from the group consisting of: an archaea, a bacterium, a eukaryotic single-cell organism, an algae, a plant, an animal, an invertebrate, a fly, a worm, a cnidarian, a vertebrate, a fish, a frog, a bird, a mammal, an ungulate, a rodent, a rat, a mouse, and a non-human primate.
  • compositions comprising: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) the site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the first segment of the DNA-targeting RNA comprises 8 nucleotides that have at least 100% complementarity to a sequence in the target DNA.
  • the second segment of the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-682 (e.g., SEQ ID NOs:563-682).
  • the second segment of the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the enzymatic activity modifies the target DNA.
  • the enzymatic activity is nuclease activity, methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, DNA repair activity, DNA damage activity, deamination activity, dismutase activity, alkylation activity, depurination activity, oxidation activity, pyrimidine dimer forming activity, integrase activity, transposase activity, recombinase activity, polymerase activity, ligase activity, helicase activity, photolyase activity or glycosylase activity.
  • the enzymatic activity is nuclease activity.
  • the nuclease activity introduces a double strand break in the target DNA.
  • the enzymatic activity modifies a target polypeptide associated with the target DNA.
  • the enzymatic activity is methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity, deubiquitinating activity, adenylation activity, deadenylation activity, SUMOylating activity, deSUMOylating activity, ribosylation activity, deribosylation activity, myristoylation activity or demyristoylation activity.
  • the target polypeptide is a histone and the enzymatic activity is methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity or deubiquitinating activity.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA is a double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA and the composition comprises both a targeter-RNA and an activator-RNA, the duplex-forming segments of which are complementary and hybridize to form the second segment of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the duplex-forming segment of the activator-RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NO:SEQ ID NOs:431-682.
  • compositions comprising: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA of the present disclosure, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same; and (ii) a buffer for stabilizing nucleic acids.
  • compositions comprising: (i) a site-directed modifying polypeptide of the present disclosure, or a polynucleotide encoding the same; and (ii) a buffer for stabilizing nucleic acids and/or proteins.
  • compositions comprising: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) the site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the activity portion increases transcription within the target DNA. In some cases, the activity portion decreases transcription within the target DNA.
  • a composition comprising: (i) a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same; and (ii) a buffer for stabilizing nucleic acids and/or proteins.
  • a method of site-specific modification of a target DNA comprising: contacting the target DNA with: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in the target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity.
  • the target DNA is extrachromosomal.
  • the target DNA comprises a PAM sequence of the complementary strand that is 5′-CCY-3′, wherein Y is any DNA nucleotide and Y is immediately 5′ of the target sequence of the complementary strand of the target DNA.
  • the target DNA is part of a chromosome in vitro.
  • the target DNA is part of a chromosome in vivo.
  • the target DNA is part of a chromosome in a cell.
  • the cell is selected from the group consisting of: an archaeal cell, a bacterial cell, a eukaryotic cell, a eukaryotic single-cell organism, a somatic cell, a germ cell, a stem cell, a plant cell, an algal cell, an animal cell, in invertebrate cell, a vertebrate cell, a fish cell, a frog cell, a bird cell, a mammalian cell, a pig cell, a cow cell, a goat cell, a sheep cell, a rodent cell, a rat cell, a mouse cell, a non-human primate cell, and a human cell.
  • an archaeal cell a bacterial cell, a eukaryotic cell, a eukaryotic single-cell organism, a somatic cell, a germ cell, a stem cell, a plant cell, an algal cell, an animal cell, in invertebrate cell, a vertebrate cell, a fish cell,
  • the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-682 (e.g., SEQ ID NOs:563-682). In some cases, the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth SEQ ID NOs:431-562.
  • the DNA-modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the enzymatic activity modifies the target DNA.
  • the enzymatic activity is nuclease activity, methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, DNA repair activity, DNA damage activity, deamination activity, dismutase activity, alkylation activity, depurination activity, oxidation activity, pyrimidine dimer forming activity, integrase activity, transposase activity, recombinase activity, polymerase activity, ligase activity, helicase activity, photolyase activity or glycosylase activity.
  • the DNA-modifying enzymatic activity is nuclease activity.
  • the nuclease activity introduces a double strand break in the target DNA.
  • the contacting occurs under conditions that are permissive for nonhomologous end joining or homology-directed repair.
  • the method further comprises contacting the target DNA with a donor polynucleotide, wherein the donor polynucleotide, a portion of the donor polynucleotide, a copy of the donor polynucleotide, or a portion of a copy of the donor polynucleotide integrates into the target DNA.
  • the method does not comprise contacting the cell with a donor polynucleotide, wherein the target DNA is modified such that nucleotides within the target DNA are deleted.
  • the enzymatic activity modifies a target polypeptide associated with the target DNA.
  • the enzymatic activity is methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity, deubiquitinating activity, adenylation activity, deadenylation activity, SUMOylating activity, deSUMOylating activity, ribosylation activity, deribosylation activity, myristoylation activity or demyristoylation activity.
  • the target polypeptide is a histone and the enzymatic activity is methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity or deubiquitinating activity.
  • the complex further comprises an activator-RNA.
  • the activator-RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-682.
  • a method of modulating site-specific transcription within a target DNA comprising contacting the target DNA with: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in the target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription, wherein said contacting results in modulating transcription within the target DNA.
  • transcription within the target DNA is increased.
  • transcription within the target DNA is decreased.
  • a method of site-specific modification at target DNA comprising: contacting the target DNA with: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in the target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide increases transcription within the target DNA.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide decreases transcription within the target DNA.
  • RNA-targeting RNA comprises: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in the target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits nuclease activity that creates a double strand break in the target DNA; wherein the site of the double strand break is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA, the contacting occurs
  • the method further comprises contacting the target DNA with a donor polynucleotide, wherein the donor polynucleotide, a portion of the donor polynucleotide, a copy of the donor polynucleotide, or a portion of a copy of the donor polynucleotide integrates into the target DNA.
  • the method does not comprise contacting the cell with a donor polynucleotide, wherein the target DNA is modified such that nucleotides within the target DNA are deleted.
  • the cell is selected from the group consisting of: an archaeal cell, a bacterial cell, a eukaryotic cell, a eukaryotic single-cell organism, a somatic cell, a germ cell, a stem cell, a plant cell, an algal cell, an animal cell, in invertebrate cell, a vertebrate cell, a fish cell, a frog cell, a bird cell, a mammalian cell, a pig cell, a cow cell, a goat cell, a sheep cell, a rodent cell, a rat cell, a mouse cell, a non-human primate cell, and a human cell.
  • the cell is in vitro. In some cases, the cell is in vivo.
  • a method of producing a genetically modified cell in a subject comprising: (I) introducing into a cell: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in the target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits nuclease activity that creates a double strand break in the target DNA; wherein the site of the double strand break is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA, the contacting occurs under conditions that are
  • the method further comprises contacting the cell with a donor polynucleotide, wherein the donor polynucleotide, a portion of the donor polynucleotide, a copy of the donor polynucleotide, or a portion of a copy of the donor polynucleotide integrates into the target DNA.
  • the method does not comprise contacting the cell with a donor polynucleotide, wherein the target DNA is modified such that nucleotides within the target DNA are deleted.
  • the cell is selected from the group consisting of: an archaeal cell, a bacterial cell, a eukaryotic cell, a eukaryotic single-cell organism, a somatic cell, a germ cell, a stem cell, a plant cell, an algal cell, an animal cell, in invertebrate cell, a vertebrate cell, a fish cell, an amphibian cell, a bird cell, a mammalian cell, an ungulate cell, a rodent cell, a non-human primate cell, and a human cell.
  • nucleotide sequence encoding an exogenous site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising introducing into the genetically modified cell a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, wherein: (i) the DNA-targeting RNA comprises: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in the target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits nuclease activity.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the cell is selected from the group consisting of: an archaeal cell, a bacterial cell, a eukaryotic cell, a eukaryotic single-cell organism, a somatic cell, a germ cell, a stem cell, a plant cell, an algal cell, an animal cell, in invertebrate cell, a vertebrate cell, a fish cell, an amphibian cell, a bird cell, a mammalian cell, an ungulate cell, a rodent cell, a non-human primate cell, and a human cell.
  • the cell is in vivo.
  • the cell is in vitro.
  • the expression of the site-directed modifying polypeptide is under the control of an inducible promoter.
  • the expression of the site-directed modifying polypeptide is under the control of a cell type-specific promoter.
  • kits comprising: the DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same; and a reagent for reconstitution and/or dilution.
  • the kit further comprises a reagent selected from the group consisting of: a buffer for introducing into cells the DNA-targeting RNA, a wash buffer, a control reagent, a control expression vector or RNA polynucleotide, a reagent for transcribing the DNA-targeting RNA from DNA, and combinations thereof.
  • kits comprising: a site-directed modifying polypeptide of the present disclosure, or a polynucleotide encoding the same; and a reagent for reconstitution and/or dilution.
  • the kit further comprises a reagent selected from the group consisting of: a buffer for introducing into cells the site-directed modifying polypeptide, a wash buffer, a control reagent, a control expression vector or RNA polynucleotide, a reagent for in vitro production of the site-directed modifying polypeptide from DNA, and combinations thereof.
  • kits comprising: a site-directed modifying polypeptide of the present disclosure, or a polynucleotide encoding the same; and a reagent for reconstitution and/or dilution.
  • kits comprising: a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) the site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity
  • kits comprising: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) the site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • kits comprising: (i) any of the recombinant expression vectors above; and (ii) a reagent for reconstitution and/or dilution.
  • kit comprising: (i) any of the recombinant expression vectors above; and (ii) a recombinant expression vector comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes a site-directed modifying polypeptide, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • kits comprising: (i) any of the recombinant expression vectors above; and (ii) a recombinant expression vector comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes a site-directed modifying polypeptide, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • kits for targeting target DNA comprising: two or more DNA-targeting RNAs, or DNA polynucleotides encoding the same, wherein the first segment of at least one of the two or more DNA-targeting RNAs differs by at least one nucleotide from the first segment of at least one other of the two or more DNA-targeting RNAs.
  • FIGS. 1A-B provide a schematic drawing of two exemplary subject DNA-targeting RNAs, each associated with a site-directed modifying polypeptide and with a target DNA.
  • FIG. 2 depicts target DNA editing through double-stranded DNA breaks introduced using a Cas9/Csn1 site-directed modifying polypeptide and a DNA-targeting RNA.
  • FIGS. 3A-B depict the amino acid sequence of a Cas9/Csn1 protein from Streptococcus pyogenes (SEQ ID NO:8).
  • Cas9 has domains homologous to both HNH and RuvC endonucleases.
  • Motifs 1-4 are overlined
  • B Domains 1 and 2 are overlined.
  • FIGS. 4A-B depict the percent identity between the Cas9/Csn1 proteins from multiple species.
  • A Sequence identity relative to Streptococcus pyogenes .
  • Domain 1 is amino acids 7-166 and Domain 2 is amino acids 731-1003 of Cas9/Csn1 from Streptococcus pyogenes as depicted in FIG. 3B .
  • B Sequence identity relative to Neisseria meningitidis .
  • Domain 1 is amino acids 13-139 and Domain 2 is amino acids 475-750 of Cas9/Csn1 from Neisseria meningitidis (SEQ ID NO:79).
  • FIG. 5 depicts a multiple sequence alignment of motifs 1-4 of Cas9/Csn1 proteins from various diverse species selected from the phylogenetic table in FIG. 32 (see FIG. 32 , FIG. 3A , and Table 1) ( Streptococcus pyogenes (SEQ ID NO:8), Legionella pneumophila (SEQ ID NO:17), Gamma proteobacterium (SEQ ID NO:107), Listeria innocua (SEQ ID NO:3), Lactobacillus gasseri (SEQ ID NO:152), Eubacterium rectale (SEQ ID NO:99), Staphylococcus lugdunensis (SEQ ID NO:185), Mycoplasma synoviae (SEQ ID NO:22), Mycoplasma mobile (SEQ ID NO:16), Wolinella succinogenes (SEQ ID NO:10), Flavobacterium columnare (SEQ ID NO:235), Fibrobacter succinogenes (SEQ ID NO:121), Bacteroides fragilis
  • FIGS. 6A-B provide alignments of naturally occurring tracrRNA (“activator-RNA”) sequences from various species ( L. innocua (SEQ ID NO:268); S. pyogenes (SEQ ID NO:267); S. mutans (SEQ ID NO:269); S. thermophilus 1 (SEQ ID NO:270); M. mobile (SEQ ID NO:274); N. meningitides (SEQ ID NO:272); P. multocida (SEQ ID NO:273); S. thermophilus 2 (SEQ ID NO:271); and S. pyogenes (SEQ ID NO:267).
  • L. innocua SEQ ID NO:268
  • S. pyogenes SEQ ID NO:267
  • S. mutans SEQ ID NO:269
  • S. thermophilus 1 SEQ ID NO:270
  • M. mobile SEQ ID NO:274
  • N meningitides
  • P. multocida SEQ ID
  • A multiple sequence alignment of selected tracrRNA orthologues (AlignX, VectorNTI package, Invitrogen) associated with CRISPR/Cas loci of similar architecture and highly similar Cas9/Csn1 sequences. Black boxes represent shared nucleotides
  • B multiple sequence alignment of selected tracrRNA orthologues (AlignX, VectorNTI package, Invitrogen) associated with CRISPR/Cas loci of different architecture and non-closely related Cas9/Csn1 sequences. Note the sequence similarity of N. meningitidis and P. multocida tracrRNA orthologues. Black boxes represent shared nucleotides. For more exemplary activator-RNA sequences, see SEQ ID NOs:431-562.
  • FIGS. 7A-B provide alignments of naturally occurring duplex-forming segments of crRNA (“targeter-RNA”) sequences from various species ( L. innocua (SEQ ID NO://); S. pyogenes (SEQ ID NO://); S. mutans (SEQ ID NO://); S. thermophilus 1 (SEQ ID NO://); C. jejuni (SEQ ID NO://); S. pyogenes (SEQ ID NO://); F. novicida (SEQ ID NO://); M. mobile (SEQ ID NOW); N. meningitides (SEQ ID NO://); P. multocida (SEQ ID NO://); and S. thermophilus 2 (SEQ ID NO://).
  • L. innocua SEQ ID NO://
  • S. pyogenes SEQ ID NO://
  • S. mutans SEQ ID NO://
  • S. thermophilus 1 SEQ ID NO://
  • C. jejuni SEQ ID NO://
  • S. pyogenes SEQ
  • A multiple sequence alignments of exemplary duplex-forming segment of targeter-RNA sequences (AlignX, VectorNTI package, Invitrogen) associated with the loci of similar architecture and highly similar Cas9/Csn1 sequences.
  • B multiple sequence alignments of exemplary duplex-forming segment of targeter-RNA sequences (AlignX, VectorNTI package, Invitrogen) associated with the loci of different architecture and diverse Cas9 sequences. Black boxes represent shared nucleotides. For more exemplary duplex-forming segments targeter-RNA sequences, see SEQ ID NOs:563-679.
  • FIG. 8 provides a schematic of hybridization for naturally occurring duplex-forming segments of the crRNA (“targeter-RNA”) with the duplex-forming segment of the corresponding tracrRNA orthologue (“activator-RNA”).
  • Upper sequence targeter-RNA; lower sequence, duplex-forming segment of the corresponding activator-RNA.
  • the CRISPR loci belong to the Type II (Nmeni/CASS4) CRISPR/Cas system. Nomenclature is according to the CRISPR database (CRISPR DB). S. pyogenes (SEQ ID NO:// and //); S. mutans (SEQ ID NO:// and //); S. thermophilus 1 (SEQ ID NO:// and //); S. thermophilus 2 (SEQ ID NO:// and //); L.
  • FIG. 9 depicts example tracrRNA (activator-RNA) and crRNA (targeter-RNA) sequences from two species.
  • S. pyogenes Cas9/Csn1 protein is functional with tracrRNA and crRNA derived from L. innocua .
  • ) denotes a canonical Watson-Crick base pair while (•) denotes a G-U wobble base pair.
  • “Variable 20 nt” or “20 nt” represents the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a target DNA (this region can be up to about 100 nt in length).
  • the design of single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA that incorporates features of the targeter-RNA and the activator-RNA.
  • RNAs SEQ ID NOs:680-682
  • Cas9 protein SEQ ID NOs:1-259
  • tracrRNAs SEQ ID NOs:431-562, or the complements thereof
  • crRNAs SEQ ID NOs:563-679, or the complements thereof
  • example single-molecule DNA-targeting RNAs SEQ ID NOs:680-682
  • FIGS. 10A-E show that Cas9 is a DNA endonuclease guided by two RNA molecules.
  • Figure E top to bottom, SEQ ID NOs: 278-280, and //).
  • FIGS. 11A-B demonstrate that Cas9 uses two nuclease domains to cleave the two strands in the target DNA.
  • FIGS. 12A-E illustrate that Cas9-catalyzed cleavage of target DNA requires an activating domain in tracrRNA and is governed by a seed sequence in the crRNA.
  • FIG. 12C top to bottom, SEQ ID NO:278-280, and //
  • FIG. 12D top to bottom, SEQ ID NOs: 281-290
  • FIG. 12E top to bottom, SEQ ID NOs: 291-292, 283, 293-298.
  • FIGS. 13A-C show that a PAM is required to license target DNA cleavage by the Cas9-tracrRNA:crRNA complex.
  • FIGS. 14A-C illustrate that Cas9 can be programmed using a single engineered RNA molecule combining tracrRNA and crRNA features.
  • Chimera A (SEQ ID NO:299); Chimera B (SEQ ID NO:300).
  • FIG. 15 depicts the type II RNA-mediated CRISPR/Cas immune pathway.
  • FIGS. 16A-B depict purification of Cas9 nucleases.
  • FIGS. 17A-C show that Cas9 guided by dual-tracrRNA:crRNA cleaves protospacer plasmid and oligonucleotide DNA.
  • FIG. 17B top to bottom, SEQ ID NOs: 301-303, and //; and
  • FIG. 17C top to bottom, SEQ ID NO:304-306, and //).
  • FIGS. 18A-B show that Cas9 is a Mg2+-dependent endonuclease with 3′-5′ exonuclease activity.
  • FIGS. 19A-C illustrate that dual-tracrRNA:crRNA directed Cas9 cleavage of target DNA is site specific.
  • FIG. 19C top to bottom, SEQ ID NOs: 307-309, //, 337-339, and //).
  • FIGS. 20A-B show that dual-tracrRNA:crRNA directed Cas9 cleavage of target DNA is fast and efficient.
  • FIGS. 21A-B show that the HNH and RuvC-like domains of Cas9 direct cleavage of the complementary and noncomplementary DNA strand, respectively.
  • FIG. 22 demonstrates that tracrRNA is required for target DNA recognition.
  • FIGS. 23A-B show that a minimal region of tracrRNA is capable of guiding dualtracrRNA: crRNA directed cleavage of target DNA.
  • FIGS. 24A-D demonstrate that dual-tracrRNA:crRNA guided target DNA cleavage by Cas9 can be species specific.
  • FIGS. 25A-C show that a seed sequence in the crRNA governs dual tracrRNA:crRNA directed cleavage of target DNA by Cas9.
  • FIG. 25A target DNA probe 1 (SEQ ID NO:310); spacer 4 crRNA (1-42) (SEQ ID NO:311); tracrRNA (15-89) (SEQ ID NO://).
  • FIG. 25B left panel (SEQ ID NO:310).
  • FIGS. 26A-C demonstrate that the PAM sequence is essential for protospacer plasmid DNA cleavage by Cas9-tracrRNA:crRNA and for Cas9-mediated plasmid DNA interference in bacterial cells.
  • FIG. 26B top to bottom, SEQ ID NOs:312-314; and FIG. 26C (top to bottom, SEQ ID NO:315-320).
  • FIGS. 27A-C show that Cas9 guided by a single chimeric RNA mimicking dual tracrRNA:crRNA cleaves protospacer DNA.
  • FIG. 27C (top to bottom, SEQ ID NO:321-324).
  • FIGS. 28A-D depict de novo design of chimeric RNAs targeting the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) gene sequence.
  • FIG. 28B top to bottom, SEQ ID NOs:325-326.
  • FIG. 28C GFP1 target sequence (SEQ ID NO:327); GFP2 target sequence (SEQ ID NO:328); GFP3 target sequence (SEQ ID NO:329); GFP4 target sequence (SEQ ID NO:330); GFP5 target sequence (SEQ ID NO:331); GFP1 chimeric RNA (SEQ ID NO:332); GFP2 chimeric RNA (SEQ ID NO:333); GFP3 chimeric RNA (SEQ ID NO:334); GFP4 chimeric RNA (SEQ ID NO:335); GFP5 chimeric RNA (SEQ ID NO:336).
  • GFP1 target sequence SEQ ID NO:327
  • GFP2 target sequence SEQ ID NO:328
  • GFP3 target sequence SEQ ID NO:329)
  • FIGS. 29A-E demonstrate that co-expression of Cas9 and guide RNA in human cells generates double-strand DNA breaks at the target locus.
  • FIG. 29C top to bottom, SEQ ID NO:425-428).
  • FIGS. 30A-B demonstrate that cell lysates contain active Cas9:sgRNA and support site-specific DNA cleavage.
  • FIGS. 31A-B demonstrate that 3′ extension of sgRNA constructs enhances site-specific NHEJ-mediated mutagenesis.
  • FIG. 31A top to bottom, SEQ ID NO:428-430).
  • FIGS. 32A-B depict a phylogenetic tree of representative Cas9 sequences from various organisms (A) as well as Cas9 locus architectures for the main groups of the tree (B).
  • FIGS. 33A-E depict the architecture of type II CRISPR-Cas from selected bacterial species.
  • FIGS. 34A-B depict tracrRNA and pre-crRNA co-processing in selected type II CRISPR Cas systems.
  • FIG. 34A top to bottom, SEQ ID NO://,//,//,//,//,//,///;
  • FIG. 34B top to bottom, SEQ ID NO://,//,//,//).
  • FIG. 35 depicts a sequence alignment of tracrRNA orthologues demonstrating the diversity of tracrRNA sequences.
  • FIGS. 36A-F depict the expression of bacterial tracrRNA orthologues and crRNAs revealed by deep RNA sequencing.
  • FIGS. 37A-O list all tracrRNA orthologues and mature crRNAs retrieved by sequencing for the bacterial species studied, including coordinates (region of interest) and corresponding cDNA sequences (5′ to 3′).
  • FIGS. 38 A-B present a table of bacterial species containing type II CRISPR-Cas loci characterized by the presence of the signature gene cas9. These sequences were used for phylogenetic analyses.
  • FIGS. 39 A-B depict the design of the CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) system.
  • FIGS. 40 A-E demonstrate that CRISPRi effectively silences transcription elongation and initiation.
  • FIGS. 41 A-B demonstrate that CRISPRi functions by blocking transcription elongation.
  • FIGS. 42 A-C demonstrate the targeting specificity of the CRISPRi system.
  • FIGS. 43 A-F depict the characterization of factors that affect silencing efficiency.
  • FIGS. 44 A-C depict functional profiling of a complex regulatory network using CRISPRi gene knockdown.
  • FIGS. 45 A-B demonstrates gene silencing using CRISPRi in mammalian cells.
  • FIG. 46 depicts the mechanism of the type II CRISPR system from S. pyogenes.
  • FIGS. 47 A-B depict the growth curves of E. coli cell cultures co-transformed with dCas9 and sgRNA.
  • FIG. 48 shows that CRISPRi could silence expression of a reporter gene on a multiple-copy plasmid.
  • FIGS. 49 A-C depict the RNA-seq data of cells with sgRNAs that target different genes.
  • FIGS. 50 A-E depict the silencing effects of sgRNAs with adjacent double mismatches.
  • FIGS. 51 A-C depict the combinatorial silencing effects of using two sgRNAs to regulate a single gene.
  • FIG. 52 shows that sgRNA repression is dependent on the target loci and relatively distance from the transcription start.
  • FIGS. 53 A-C depict experimental results demonstrating that a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide (dCas9) is works for the subject methods when dCas9 has reduced activity in the RuvC1 domain only (e.g., D10A), the HNH domain only (e.g., H840A), or both domains (e.g, D10A and H840A).
  • dCas9 has reduced activity in the RuvC1 domain only (e.g., D10A), the HNH domain only (e.g., H840A), or both domains (e.g, D10A and H840A).
  • FIGS. 54 A-C list examples of suitable fusion partners (or fragments thereof) for a subject variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide. Examples include, but are not limited to those listed.
  • FIGS. 55 A-D demonstrate that a chimeric site-directed polypeptide can be used to activate (increase) transcription in human cells.
  • FIG. 56 demonstrates that a chimeric site-directed polypeptide can be used to repress (decrease) transcription in human cells.
  • FIGS. 57A-B demonstrate that artificial sequences that share roughly 50% identity with naturally occurring a tracrRNAs and crRNAs can function with Cas9 to cleave target DNA as long as the structure of the protein-binding domain of the DNA-targeting RNA is conserved.
  • polynucleotide and “nucleic acid,” used interchangeably herein, refer to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, either ribonucleotides or deoxyribonucleotides. Thus, this term includes, but is not limited to, single-, double-, or multi-stranded DNA or RNA, genomic DNA, cDNA, DNA-RNA hybrids, or a polymer comprising purine and pyrimidine bases or other natural, chemically or biochemically modified, non-natural, or derivatized nucleotide bases.
  • Oligonucleotide generally refers to polynucleotides of between about 5 and about 100 nucleotides of single- or double-stranded DNA.
  • oligonucleotide is also known as “oligomers” or “oligos” and may be isolated from genes, or chemically synthesized by methods known in the art.
  • polynucleotide and nucleic acid should be understood to include, as applicable to the embodiments being described, single-stranded (such as sense or antisense) and double-stranded polynucleotides.
  • a “stem-loop structure” refers to a nucleic acid having a secondary structure that includes a region of nucleotides which are known or predicted to form a double strand (step portion) that is linked on one side by a region of predominantly single-stranded nucleotides (loop portion).
  • the terms “hairpin” and “fold-back” structures are also used herein to refer to stem-loop structures. Such structures are well known in the art and these terms are used consistently with their known meanings in the art.
  • a stem-loop structure does not require exact base-pairing.
  • the stem may include one or more base mismatches.
  • the base-pairing may be exact, i.e. not include any mismatches.
  • hybridizable or “complementary” or “substantially complementary” it is meant that a nucleic acid (e.g. RNA) comprises a sequence of nucleotides that enables it to non-covalently bind, i.e. form Watson-Crick base pairs and/or G/U base pairs, “anneal”, or “hybridize,” to another nucleic acid in a sequence-specific, antiparallel, manner (i.e., a nucleic acid specifically binds to a complementary nucleic acid) under the appropriate in vitro and/or in vivo conditions of temperature and solution ionic strength.
  • RNA complementary nucleic acid
  • standard Watson-Crick base-pairing includes: adenine (A) pairing with thymidine (T), adenine (A) pairing with uracil (U), and guanine (G) pairing with cytosine (C) [DNA, RNA].
  • A adenine
  • U uracil
  • G guanine
  • C cytosine
  • G/U base-pairing is partially responsible for the degeneracy (i.e., redundancy) of the genetic code in the context of tRNA anti-codon base-pairing with codons in mRNA.
  • a guanine (G) of a protein-binding segment (dsRNA duplex) of a subject DNA-targeting RNA molecule is considered complementary to a uracil (U), and vice versa.
  • G guanine
  • U uracil
  • Hybridization and washing conditions are well known and exemplified in Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E. F. and Maniatis, T. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor (1989), particularly Chapter 11 and Table 11.1 therein; and Sambrook, J. and Russell, W., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor (2001).
  • the conditions of temperature and ionic strength determine the “stringency” of the hybridization.
  • Hybridization requires that the two nucleic acids contain complementary sequences, although mismatches between bases are possible.
  • the conditions appropriate for hybridization between two nucleic acids depend on the length of the nucleic acids and the degree of complementation, variables well known in the art. The greater the degree of complementation between two nucleotide sequences, the greater the value of the melting temperature (Tm) for hybrids of nucleic acids having those sequences.
  • Tm melting temperature
  • For hybridizations between nucleic acids with short stretches of complementarity e.g. complementarity over 35 or less, 30 or less, 25 or less, 22 or less, 20 or less, or 18 or less nucleotides
  • the position of mismatches becomes important (see Sambrook et al., supra, 11.7-11.8).
  • the length for a hybridizable nucleic acid is at least about 10 nucleotides.
  • Illustrative minimum lengths for a hybridizable nucleic acid are: at least about 15 nucleotides; at least about 20 nucleotides; at least about 22 nucleotides; at least about 25 nucleotides; and at least about 30 nucleotides).
  • the temperature and wash solution salt concentration may be adjusted as necessary according to factors such as length of the region of complementation and the degree of complementation.
  • polynucleotide need not be 100% complementary to that of its target nucleic acid to be specifically hybridizable or hybridizable. Moreover, a polynucleotide may hybridize over one or more segments such that intervening or adjacent segments are not involved in the hybridization event (e.g., a loop structure or hairpin structure).
  • a polynucleotide can comprise at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 99%, or 100% sequence complementarity to a target region within the target nucleic acid sequence to which they are targeted.
  • an antisense nucleic acid in which 18 of 20 nucleotides of the antisense compound are complementary to a target region, and would therefore specifically hybridize would represent 90 percent complementarity.
  • the remaining noncomplementary nucleotides may be clustered or interspersed with complementary nucleotides and need not be contiguous to each other or to complementary nucleotides. Percent complementarity between particular stretches of nucleic acid sequences within nucleic acids can be determined routinely using BLAST programs (basic local alignment search tools) and PowerBLAST programs known in the art (Altschul et al., J. Mol.
  • peptide refers to a polymeric form of amino acids of any length, which can include coded and non-coded amino acids, chemically or biochemically modified or derivatized amino acids, and polypeptides having modified peptide backbones.
  • Binding refers to a non-covalent interaction between macromolecules (e.g., between a protein and a nucleic acid). While in a state of non-covalent interaction, the macromolecules are said to be “associated” or “interacting” or “binding” (e.g., when a molecule X is said to interact with a molecule Y, it is meant the molecule X binds to molecule Y in a non-covalent manner).
  • Binding interactions are generally characterized by a dissociation constant (Kd) of less than 10 ⁇ 6 M, less than 10 ⁇ 7 M, less than 10 ⁇ 8 M, less than 10 ⁇ 9 M, less than 10 ⁇ 10 M, less than 10 ⁇ 11 M, less than 10 ⁇ 12 M, less than 10 ⁇ 13 M, less than 10 ⁇ 14 M, or less than 10 ⁇ 15 M.
  • Kd dissociation constant
  • Affinity refers to the strength of binding, increased binding affinity being correlated with a lower Kd.
  • binding domain it is meant a protein domain that is able to bind non-covalently to another molecule.
  • a binding domain can bind to, for example, a DNA molecule (a DNA-binding protein), an RNA molecule (an RNA-binding protein) and/or a protein molecule (a protein-binding protein).
  • a protein domain-binding protein it can bind to itself (to form homodimers, homotrimers, etc.) and/or it can bind to one or more molecules of a different protein or proteins.
  • a group of amino acids having aliphatic side chains consists of glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine; a group of amino acids having aliphatic-hydroxyl side chains consists of serine and threonine; a group of amino acids having amide containing side chains consisting of asparagine and glutamine; a group of amino acids having aromatic side chains consists of phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan; a group of amino acids having basic side chains consists of lysine, arginine, and histidine; a group of amino acids having acidic side chains consists of glutamate and aspartate; and a group of amino acids having sulfur containing side chains consists of cysteine and methionine.
  • Exemplary conservative amino acid substitution groups are valine-leucine-isoleucine, phenylalan
  • a polynucleotide or polypeptide has a certain percent “sequence identity” to another polynucleotide or polypeptide, meaning that, when aligned, that percentage of bases or amino acids are the same, and in the same relative position, when comparing the two sequences. Sequence identity can be determined in a number of different manners.
  • sequences can be aligned using various methods and computer programs (e.g., BLAST, T-COFFEE, MUSCLE, MAFFT, etc.), available over the world wide web at sites including ncbi.nlm.nili gov/BLAST, ebi.ac.uk/Tools/msa/tcoffee/, ebi.ac.uk/Tools/msa/muscle/, mafft.cbrc.jp/alignment/software/. See, e.g., Altschul et al. (1990), J. Mol. Bioi. 215:403-10.
  • a DNA sequence that “encodes” a particular RNA is a DNA nucleic acid sequence that is transcribed into RNA.
  • a DNA polynucleotide may encode an RNA (mRNA) that is translated into protein, or a DNA polynucleotide may encode an RNA that is not translated into protein (e.g. tRNA, rRNA, or a DNA-targeting RNA; also called “non-coding” RNA or “ncRNA”).
  • a “protein coding sequence” or a sequence that encodes a particular protein or polypeptide is a nucleic acid sequence that is transcribed into mRNA (in the case of DNA) and is translated (in the case of mRNA) into a polypeptide in vitro or in vivo when placed under the control of appropriate regulatory sequences.
  • the boundaries of the coding sequence are determined by a start codon at the 5′ terminus (N-terminus) and a translation stop nonsense codon at the 3′ terminus (C-terminus).
  • a coding sequence can include, but is not limited to, cDNA from prokaryotic or eukaryotic mRNA, genomic DNA sequences from prokaryotic or eukaryotic DNA, and synthetic nucleic acids.
  • a transcription termination sequence will usually be located 3′ to the coding sequence.
  • a “promoter sequence” is a DNA regulatory region capable of binding RNA polymerase and initiating transcription of a downstream (3′ direction) coding or non-coding sequence.
  • the promoter sequence is bounded at its 3′ terminus by the transcription initiation site and extends upstream (5′ direction) to include the minimum number of bases or elements necessary to initiate transcription at levels detectable above background.
  • a transcription initiation site within the promoter sequence will be found a transcription initiation site, as well as protein binding domains responsible for the binding of RNA polymerase.
  • Eukaryotic promoters will often, but not always, contain “TATA” boxes and “CAT” boxes.
  • Various promoters, including inducible promoters may be used to drive the various vectors of the present invention.
  • a promoter can be a constitutively active promoter (i.e., a promoter that is constitutively in an active/“ON” state), it may be an inducible promoter (i.e., a promoter whose state, active/“ON” or inactive/“OFF”, is controlled by an external stimulus, e.g., the presence of a particular temperature, compound, or protein.), it may be a spatially restricted promoter (i.e., transcriptional control element, enhancer, etc.)(e.g., tissue specific promoter, cell type specific promoter, etc.), and it may be a temporally restricted promoter (i.e., the promoter is in the “ON” state or “OFF” state during specific stages of embryonic development or during specific stages of a biological process, e.g., hair follicle cycle in mice).
  • a constitutively active promoter i.e., a promoter that is constitutively in an active/“ON” state
  • it may be an inducible promote
  • Suitable promoters can be derived from viruses and can therefore be referred to as viral promoters, or they can be derived from any organism, including prokaryotic or eukaryotic organisms. Suitable promoters can be used to drive expression by any RNA polymerase (e.g., pol I, pol II, pol III).
  • RNA polymerase e.g., pol I, pol II, pol III
  • Exemplary promoters include, but are not limited to the SV40 early promoter, mouse mammary tumor virus long terminal repeat (LTR) promoter; adenovirus major late promoter (Ad MLP); a herpes simplex virus (HSV) promoter, a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter such as the CMV immediate early promoter region (CMVIE), a rous sarcoma virus (RSV) promoter, a human U6 small nuclear promoter (U6) (Miyagishi et al., Nature Biotechnology 20, 497-500 (2002)), an enhanced U6 promoter (e.g., Xia et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 2003 Sep. 1; 31(17)), a human H1 promoter (H1), and the like.
  • LTR mouse mammary tumor virus long terminal repeat
  • Ad MLP adenovirus major late promoter
  • HSV herpes simplex virus
  • CMV cytomegalovirus
  • CMVIE C
  • inducible promoters include, but are not limited to T7 RNA polymerase promoter, T3 RNA polymerase promoter, Isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)-regulated promoter, lactose induced promoter, heat shock promoter, Tetracycline-regulated promoter, Steroid-regulated promoter, Metal-regulated promoter, estrogen receptor-regulated promoter, etc.
  • Inducible promoters can therefore be regulated by molecules including, but not limited to, doxycycline; RNA polymerase, e.g., T7 RNA polymerase; an estrogen receptor; an estrogen receptor fusion; etc.
  • the promoter is a spatially restricted promoter (i.e., cell type specific promoter, tissue specific promoter, etc.) such that in a multi-cellular organism, the promoter is active (i.e., “ON”) in a subset of specific cells.
  • spatially restricted promoters may also be referred to as enhancers, transcriptional control elements, control sequences, etc.
  • any convenient spatially restricted promoter may be used and the choice of suitable promoter (e.g., a brain specific promoter, a promoter that drives expression in a subset of neurons, a promoter that drives expression in the germline, a promoter that drives expression in the lungs, a promoter that drives expression in muscles, a promoter that drives expression in islet cells of the pancreas, etc.) will depend on the organism.
  • various spatially restricted promoters are known for plants, flies, worms, mammals, mice, etc.
  • a spatially restricted promoter can be used to regulate the expression of a nucleic acid encoding a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide in a wide variety of different tissues and cell types, depending on the organism.
  • Some spatially restricted promoters are also temporally restricted such that the promoter is in the “ON” state or “OFF” state during specific stages of embryonic development or during specific stages of a biological process (e.g., hair follicle cycle in mice).
  • spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to, neuron-specific promoters, adipocyte-specific promoters, cardiomyocyte-specific promoters, smooth muscle-specific promoters, photoreceptor-specific promoters, etc.
  • Neuron-specific spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to, a neuron-specific enolase (NSE) promoter (see, e.g., EMBL HSENO2, X51956); an aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) promoter; a neurofilament promoter (see, e.g., GenBank HUMNFL, L04147); a synapsin promoter (see, e.g., GenBank HUMSYNIB, M55301); a thy-1 promoter (see, e.g., Chen et al. (1987) Cell 51:7-19; and Llewellyn, et al. (2010) Nat. Med.
  • NSE neuron-specific enolase
  • AADC aromatic amino acid decarboxylase
  • Adipocyte-specific spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to aP2 gene promoter/enhancer, e.g., a region from ⁇ 5.4 kb to +21 bp of a human aP2 gene (see, e.g., Tozzo et al. (1997) Endocrinol. 138:1604; Ross et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:9590; and Pavjani et al. (2005) Nat. Med. 11:797); a glucose transporter-4 (GLUT4) promoter (see, e.g., Knight et al. (2003) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
  • aP2 gene promoter/enhancer e.g., a region from ⁇ 5.4 kb to +21 bp of a human aP2 gene (see, e.g., Tozzo et al. (1997) Endocrinol. 138:160
  • fatty acid translocase (FAT/CD36) promoter see, e.g., Kuriki et al. (2002) Biol. Pharm. Bull. 25:1476; and Sato et al. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277:15703
  • SCD1 stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1
  • SCD1 stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 promoter
  • leptin promoter see, e.g., Mason et al. (1998) Endocrinol. 139:1013; and Chen et al. (1999) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm.
  • adiponectin promoter see, e.g., Kita et al. (2005) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 331:484; and Chakrabarti (2010) Endocrinol. 151:2408
  • an adipsin promoter see, e.g., Platt et al. (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:7490
  • a resistin promoter see, e.g., Seo et al. (2003) Molec. Endocrinol. 17:1522); and the like.
  • Cardiomyocyte-specific spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to control sequences derived from the following genes: myosin light chain-2, ⁇ -myosin heavy chain, AE3, cardiac troponin C, cardiac actin, and the like.
  • Franz et al. (1997) Cardiovasc. Res. 35:560-566; Robbins et al. (1995) Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 752:492-505; Linn et al. (1995) Circ. Res. 76:584-591; Parmacek et al. (1994) Mol. Cell. Biol. 14:1870-1885; Hunter et al. (1993) Hypertension 22:608-617; and Sartorelli et al. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:4047-4051.
  • Smooth muscle-specific spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to an SM22 ⁇ promoter (see, e.g., Akyürek et al. (2000) Mol. Med. 6:983; and U.S. Pat. No. 7,169,874); a smoothelin promoter (see, e.g., WO 2001/018048); an ⁇ -smooth muscle actin promoter; and the like.
  • a 0.4 kb region of the SM22 ⁇ promoter, within which lie two CArG elements has been shown to mediate vascular smooth muscle cell-specific expression (see, e.g., Kim, et al. (1997) Mol. Cell. Biol. 17, 2266-2278; Li, et al., (1996) J. Cell Biol. 132, 849-859; and Moessler, et al. (1996) Development 122, 2415-2425).
  • Photoreceptor-specific spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to, a rhodopsin promoter; a rhodopsin kinase promoter (Young et al. (2003) Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44:4076); a beta phosphodiesterase gene promoter (Nicoud et al. (2007) J. Gene Med. 9:1015); a retinitis pigmentosa gene promoter (Nicoud et al. (2007) supra); an interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP) gene enhancer (Nicoud et al. (2007) supra); an IRBP gene promoter (Yokoyama et al. (1992) Exp Eye Res. 55:225); and the like.
  • a rhodopsin promoter a rhodopsin kinase promoter
  • a beta phosphodiesterase gene promoter Necoud et al. (2007) J. Gene
  • DNA regulatory sequences refer to transcriptional and translational control sequences, such as promoters, enhancers, polyadenylation signals, terminators, protein degradation signals, and the like, that provide for and/or regulate transcription of a non-coding sequence (e.g., DNA-targeting RNA) or a coding sequence (e.g., site-directed modifying polypeptide, or Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide) and/or regulate translation of an encoded polypeptide.
  • a non-coding sequence e.g., DNA-targeting RNA
  • a coding sequence e.g., site-directed modifying polypeptide, or Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide
  • nucleic acid refers to a nucleic acid, polypeptide, cell, or organism that is found in nature.
  • a polypeptide or polynucleotide sequence that is present in an organism (including viruses) that can be isolated from a source in nature and which has not been intentionally modified by a human in the laboratory is naturally occurring.
  • chimeric refers to two components that are defined by structures derived from different sources.
  • a chimeric polypeptide e.g., a chimeric Cas9/Csn1 protein
  • the chimeric polypeptide includes amino acid sequences that are derived from different polypeptides.
  • a chimeric polypeptide may comprise either modified or naturally-occurring polypeptide sequences (e.g., a first amino acid sequence from a modified or unmodified Cas9/Csn1 protein; and a second amino acid sequence other than the Cas9/Csn1 protein).
  • chimeric in the context of a polynucleotide encoding a chimeric polypeptide includes nucleotide sequences derived from different coding regions (e.g., a first nucleotide sequence encoding a modified or unmodified Cas9/Csn1 protein; and a second nucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide other than a Cas9/Csn1 protein).
  • chimeric polypeptide refers to a polypeptide which is made by the combination (i.e., “fusion”) of two otherwise separated segments of amino sequence, usually through human intervention.
  • a polypeptide that comprises a chimeric amino acid sequence is a chimeric polypeptide.
  • Some chimeric polypeptides can be referred to as “fusion variants.”
  • Heterologous means a nucleotide or polypeptide sequence that is not found in the native nucleic acid or protein, respectively.
  • the RNA-binding domain of a naturally-occurring bacterial Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide may be fused to a heterologous polypeptide sequence (i.e. a polypeptide sequence from a protein other than Cas9/Csn1 or a polypeptide sequence from another organism).
  • the heterologous polypeptide sequence may exhibit an activity (e.g., enzymatic activity) that will also be exhibited by the chimeric Cas9/Csn1 protein (e.g., methyltransferase activity, acetyltransferase activity, kinase activity, ubiquitinating activity, etc.).
  • a heterologous nucleic acid sequence may be linked to a naturally-occurring nucleic acid sequence (or a variant thereof) (e.g., by genetic engineering) to generate a chimeric nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric polypeptide.
  • a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide may be fused to a heterologous polypeptide (i.e. a polypeptide other than Cas9), which exhibits an activity that will also be exhibited by the fusion variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide.
  • a heterologous nucleic acid sequence may be linked to a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide (e.g., by genetic engineering) to generate a nucleotide sequence encoding a fusion variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide.
  • Recombinant means that a particular nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) is the product of various combinations of cloning, restriction, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or ligation steps resulting in a construct having a structural coding or non-coding sequence distinguishable from endogenous nucleic acids found in natural systems.
  • DNA sequences encoding polypeptides can be assembled from cDNA fragments or from a series of synthetic oligonucleotides, to provide a synthetic nucleic acid which is capable of being expressed from a recombinant transcriptional unit contained in a cell or in a cell-free transcription and translation system.
  • Genomic DNA comprising the relevant sequences can also be used in the formation of a recombinant gene or transcriptional unit. Sequences of non-translated DNA may be present 5′ or 3′ from the open reading frame, where such sequences do not interfere with manipulation or expression of the coding regions, and may indeed act to modulate production of a desired product by various mechanisms (see “DNA regulatory sequences”, below). Alternatively, DNA sequences encoding RNA (e.g., DNA-targeting RNA) that is not translated may also be considered recombinant.
  • the term “recombinant” nucleic acid refers to one which is not naturally occurring, e.g., is made by the artificial combination of two otherwise separated segments of sequence through human intervention.
  • This artificial combination is often accomplished by either chemical synthesis means, or by the artificial manipulation of isolated segments of nucleic acids, e.g., by genetic engineering techniques. Such is usually done to replace a codon with a codon encoding the same amino acid, a conservative amino acid, or a non-conservative amino acid. Alternatively, it is performed to join together nucleic acid segments of desired functions to generate a desired combination of functions. This artificial combination is often accomplished by either chemical synthesis means, or by the artificial manipulation of isolated segments of nucleic acids, e.g., by genetic engineering techniques.
  • a recombinant polynucleotide encodes a polypeptide
  • the sequence of the encoded polypeptide can be naturally occurring (“wild type”) or can be a variant (e.g., a mutant) of the naturally occurring sequence.
  • the term “recombinant” polypeptide does not necessarily refer to a polypeptide whose sequence does not naturally occur.
  • a “recombinant” polypeptide is encoded by a recombinant DNA sequence, but the sequence of the polypeptide can be naturally occurring (“wild type”) or non-naturally occurring (e.g., a variant, a mutant, etc.).
  • a “recombinant” polypeptide is the result of human intervention, but may be a naturally occurring amino acid sequence.
  • a “vector” or “expression vector” is a replicon, such as plasmid, phage, virus, or cosmid, to which another DNA segment, i.e. an “insert”, may be attached so as to bring about the replication of the attached segment in a cell.
  • An “expression cassette” comprises a DNA coding sequence operably linked to a promoter.
  • “Operably linked” refers to a juxtaposition wherein the components so described are in a relationship permitting them to function in their intended manner. For instance, a promoter is operably linked to a coding sequence if the promoter affects its transcription or expression.
  • recombinant expression vector or “DNA construct” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a DNA molecule comprising a vector and at least one insert.
  • Recombinant expression vectors are usually generated for the purpose of expressing and/or propagating the insert(s), or for the construction of other recombinant nucleotide sequences.
  • the insert(s) may or may not be operably linked to a promoter sequence and may or may not be operably linked to DNA regulatory sequences.
  • a cell has been “genetically modified” or “transformed” or “transfected” by exogenous DNA, e.g. a recombinant expression vector, when such DNA has been introduced inside the cell.
  • exogenous DNA e.g. a recombinant expression vector
  • the presence of the exogenous DNA results in permanent or transient genetic change.
  • the transforming DNA may or may not be integrated (covalently linked) into the genome of the cell.
  • the transforming DNA may be maintained on an episomal element such as a plasmid.
  • a stably transformed cell is one in which the transforming DNA has become integrated into a chromosome so that it is inherited by daughter cells through chromosome replication.
  • a “clone” is a population of cells derived from a single cell or common ancestor by mitosis.
  • a “cell line” is a clone of a primary cell that is capable of stable growth in vitro for many generations.
  • Suitable methods of genetic modification include e.g., viral or bacteriophage infection, transfection, conjugation, protoplast fusion, lipofection, electroporation, calcium phosphate precipitation, polyethyleneimine (PEI)-mediated transfection, DEAE-dextran mediated transfection, liposome-mediated transfection, particle gun technology, calcium phosphate precipitation, direct micro injection, nanoparticle-mediated nucleic acid delivery (see, e.g., Panyam et., al Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2012 Sep. 13. pii: S0169-409X(12)00283-9. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.09.023), and the like.
  • transformation include e.g., viral or bacteriophage infection, transfection, conjugation, protoplast fusion, lipofection, electroporation, calcium phosphate precipitation, polyethyleneimine (PEI)-mediated transfection, DEAE-dextran mediated transfection, liposome-mediated transfection, particle gun technology
  • a “target DNA” as used herein is a DNA polynucleotide that comprises a “target site” or “target sequence.”
  • target site or “target sequence” or “target protospacer DNA” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a nucleic acid sequence present in a target DNA to which a DNA-targeting segment of a subject DNA-targeting RNA will bind (see FIG. 1 and FIG. 39 ), provided sufficient conditions for binding exist.
  • the target site (or target sequence) 5′-GAGCATATC-3′ (SEQ ID NO://) within a target DNA is targeted by (or is bound by, or hybridizes with, or is complementary to) the RNA sequence 5′-GAUAUGCUC-3′ (SEQ ID NO://).
  • Suitable DNA/RNA binding conditions include physiological conditions normally present in a cell.
  • Other suitable DNA/RNA binding conditions e.g., conditions in a cell-free system
  • the strand of the target DNA that is complementary to and hybridizes with the DNA-targeting RNA is referred to as the “complementary strand” and the strand of the target DNA that is complementary to the “complementary strand” (and is therefore not complementary to the DNA-targeting RNA) is referred to as the “noncomplementary strand” or “non-complementary strand” (see FIG. 12 ).
  • site-directed modifying polypeptide or “RNA-binding site-directed polypeptide” or “RNA-binding site-directed modifying polypeptide” or “site-directed polypeptide” it is meant a polypeptide that binds RNA and is targeted to a specific DNA sequence.
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide as described herein is targeted to a specific DNA sequence by the RNA molecule to which it is bound.
  • the RNA molecule comprises a sequence that is complementary to a target sequence within the target DNA, thus targeting the bound polypeptide to a specific location within the target DNA (the target sequence).
  • cleavage it is meant the breakage of the covalent backbone of a DNA molecule. Cleavage can be initiated by a variety of methods including, but not limited to, enzymatic or chemical hydrolysis of a phosphodiester bond. Both single-stranded cleavage and double-stranded cleavage are possible, and double-stranded cleavage can occur as a result of two distinct single-stranded cleavage events. DNA cleavage can result in the production of either blunt ends or staggered ends.
  • a complex comprising a DNA-targeting RNA and a site-directed modifying polypeptide is used for targeted double-stranded DNA cleavage.
  • Nuclease and “endonuclease” are used interchangeably herein to mean an enzyme which possesses catalytic activity for DNA cleavage.
  • cleavage domain or “active domain” or “nuclease domain” of a nuclease it is meant the polypeptide sequence or domain within the nuclease which possesses the catalytic activity for DNA cleavage.
  • a cleavage domain can be contained in a single polypeptide chain or cleavage activity can result from the association of two (or more) polypeptides.
  • a single nuclease domain may consist of more than one isolated stretch of amino acids within a given polypeptide.
  • DNA-targeting RNA or “DNA-targeting RNA polynucleotide” (also referred to herein as a “guide RNA” or “gRNA”).
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA comprises two segments, a “DNA-targeting segment” and a “protein-binding segment.”
  • segment it is meant a segment/section/region of a molecule, e.g., a contiguous stretch of nucleotides in an RNA.
  • a segment can also mean a region/section of a complex such that a segment may comprise regions of more than one molecule.
  • the protein-binding segment (described below) of a DNA-targeting RNA is one RNA molecule and the protein-binding segment therefore comprises a region of that RNA molecule.
  • the protein-binding segment (described below) of a DNA-targeting RNA comprises two separate molecules that are hybridized along a region of complementarity.
  • a protein-binding segment of a DNA-targeting RNA that comprises two separate molecules can comprise (i) base pairs 40-75 of a first RNA molecule that is 100 base pairs in length; and (ii) base pairs 10-25 of a second RNA molecule that is 50 base pairs in length.
  • segment unless otherwise specifically defined in a particular context, is not limited to a specific number of total base pairs, is not limited to any particular number of base pairs from a given RNA molecule, is not limited to a particular number of separate molecules within a complex, and may include regions of RNA molecules that are of any total length and may or may not include regions with complementarity to other molecules.
  • the DNA-targeting segment (or “DNA-targeting sequence”) comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a specific sequence within a target DNA (the complementary strand of the target DNA).
  • the protein-binding segment (or “protein-binding sequence”) interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • site-directed modifying polypeptide is a Cas9 or Cas9 related polypeptide (described in more detail below)
  • site-specific cleavage of the target DNA occurs at locations determined by both (i) base-pairing complementarity between the DNA-targeting RNA and the target DNA; and (ii) a short motif (referred to as the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM)) in the target DNA.
  • PAM protospacer adjacent motif
  • the protein-binding segment of a subject DNA-targeting RNA comprises two complementary stretches of nucleotides that hybridize to one another to form a double stranded RNA duplex (dsRNA duplex).
  • a subject nucleic acid e.g., a DNA-targeting RNA, a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA; a nucleic acid encoding a site-directed polypeptide; etc.
  • a modification or sequence that provides for an additional desirable feature (e.g., modified or regulated stability; subcellular targeting; tracking, e.g., a fluorescent label; a binding site for a protein or protein complex; etc.).
  • Non-limiting examples include: a 5′ cap (e.g., a 7-methylguanylate cap (m7G)); a 3′ polyadenylated tail (i.e., a 3′ poly(A) tail); a riboswitch sequence (e.g., to allow for regulated stability and/or regulated accessibility by proteins and/or protein complexes); a stability control sequence; a sequence that forms a dsRNA duplex (i.e., a hairpin)); a modification or sequence that targets the RNA to a subcellular location (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the like); a modification or sequence that provides for tracking (e.g., direct conjugation to a fluorescent molecule, conjugation to a moiety that facilitates fluorescent detection, a sequence that allows for fluorescent detection, etc.); a modification or sequence that provides a binding site for proteins (e.g., proteins that act on DNA, including transcriptional activators, transcriptional repressors, DNA
  • a DNA-targeting RNA comprises an additional segment at either the 5′ or 3′ end that provides for any of the features described above.
  • a suitable third segment can comprise a 5′ cap (e.g., a 7-methylguanylate cap (m7G)); a 3′ polyadenylated tail (i.e., a 3′ poly(A) tail); a riboswitch sequence (e.g., to allow for regulated stability and/or regulated accessibility by proteins and protein complexes); a stability control sequence; a sequence that forms a dsRNA duplex (i.e., a hairpin)); a sequence that targets the RNA to a subcellular location (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the like); a modification or sequence that provides for tracking (e.g., direct conjugation to a fluorescent molecule, conjugation to a moiety that facilitates fluorescent detection, a sequence that allows for fluorescent detection, etc.); a modification or sequence
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA and a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide form a complex (i.e., bind via non-covalent interactions).
  • the DNA-targeting RNA provides target specificity to the complex by comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence of a target DNA.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide of the complex provides the site-specific activity.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide is guided to a target DNA sequence (e.g. a target sequence in a chromosomal nucleic acid; a target sequence in an extrachromosomal nucleic acid, e.g.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA comprises two separate RNA molecules (RNA polynucleotides: an “activator-RNA” and a “targeter-RNA”, see below) and is referred to herein as a “double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA” or a “two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA.”
  • the subject DNA-targeting RNA is a single RNA molecule (single RNA polynucleotide) and is referred to herein as a “single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA,” a “single-guide RNA,” or an “sgRNA.”
  • the term “DNA-targeting RNA” or “gRNA” is inclusive, referring both to double-molecule DNA-targeting RNAs and to single-molecule DNA-targeting RNAs (i.e., sgRNAs).
  • An exemplary two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises a crRNA-like (“CRISPR RNA” or “targeter-RNA” or “crRNA” or “crRNA repeat”) molecule and a corresponding tracrRNA-like (“trans-acting CRISPR RNA” or “activator-RNA” or “tracrRNA”) molecule.
  • a crRNA-like molecule comprises both the DNA-targeting segment (single stranded) of the DNA-targeting RNA and a stretch (“duplex-forming segment”) of nucleotides that forms one half of the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a corresponding tracrRNA-like molecule comprises a stretch of nucleotides (duplex-forming segment) that forms the other half of the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a stretch of nucleotides of a crRNA-like molecule are complementary to and hybridize with a stretch of nucleotides of a tracrRNA-like molecule to form the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding domain of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • each crRNA-like molecule can be said to have a corresponding tracrRNA-like molecule.
  • the crRNA-like molecule additionally provides the single stranded DNA-targeting segment.
  • a crRNA-like and a tracrRNA-like molecule hybridize to form a DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the exact sequence of a given crRNA or tracrRNA molecule is characteristic of the species in which the RNA molecules are found.
  • Various crRNAs and tracrRNAs are depicted in corresponding complementary pairs in FIG. 8 .
  • a subject double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can comprise any corresponding crRNA and tracrRNA pair.
  • a subject double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can comprise any corresponding crRNA and tracrRNA pair.
  • activator-RNA is used herein to mean a tracrRNA-like molecule of a double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA.
  • targeter-RNA is used herein to mean a crRNA-like molecule of a double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA.
  • duplex-forming segment is used herein to mean the stretch of nucleotides of an activator-RNA or a targeter-RNA that contributes to the formation of the dsRNA duplex by hybridizing to a stretch of nucleotides of a corresponding activator-RNA or targeter-RNA molecule.
  • an activator-RNA comprises a duplex-forming segment that is complementary to the duplex-forming segment of the corresponding targeter-RNA.
  • an activator-RNA comprises a duplex-forming segment while a targeter-RNA comprises both a duplex-forming segment and the DNA-targeting segment of the DNA-targeting RNA. Therefore, a subject double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can be comprised of any corresponding activator-RNA and targeter-RNA pair.
  • a “host cell,” as used herein, denotes an in vivo or in vitro eukaryotic cell, a prokaryotic cell (e.g., bacterial or archaeal cell), or a cell from a multicellular organism (e.g., a cell line) cultured as a unicellular entity, which eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells can be, or have been, used as recipients for a nucleic acid, and include the progeny of the original cell which has been transformed by the nucleic acid. It is understood that the progeny of a single cell may not necessarily be completely identical in morphology or in genomic or total DNA complement as the original parent, due to natural, accidental, or deliberate mutation.
  • a “recombinant host cell” is a host cell into which has been introduced a heterologous nucleic acid, e.g., an expression vector.
  • a subject bacterial host cell is a genetically modified bacterial host cell by virtue of introduction into a suitable bacterial host cell of an exogenous nucleic acid (e.g., a plasmid or recombinant expression vector) and a subject eukaryotic host cell is a genetically modified eukaryotic host cell (e.g., a mammalian germ cell), by virtue of introduction into a suitable eukaryotic host cell of an exogenous nucleic acid.
  • stem cell is used herein to refer to a cell (e.g., plant stem cell, vertebrate stem cell) that has the ability both to self-renew and to generate a differentiated cell type (see Morrison et al. (1997) Cell 88:287-298).
  • the adjective “differentiated”, or “differentiating” is a relative term.
  • a “differentiated cell” is a cell that has progressed further down the developmental pathway than the cell it is being compared with.
  • pluripotent stem cells can differentiate into lineage-restricted progenitor cells (e.g., mesodermal stem cells), which in turn can differentiate into cells that are further restricted (e.g., neuron progenitors), which can differentiate into end-stage cells (i.e., terminally differentiated cells, e.g., neurons, cardiomyocytes, etc.), which play a characteristic role in a certain tissue type, and may or may not retain the capacity to proliferate further.
  • progenitor cells e.g., mesodermal stem cells
  • end-stage cells i.e., terminally differentiated cells, e.g., neurons, cardiomyocytes, etc.
  • Stem cells may be characterized by both the presence of specific markers (e.g., proteins, RNAs, etc.) and the absence of specific markers.
  • Stem cells may also be identified by functional assays both in vitro and in vivo, particularly assays relating to the ability of stem cells to give rise to multiple differentiated
  • PSCs pluripotent stem cells
  • Pluripotent stem cell or “PSC” is used herein to mean a stem cell capable of producing all cell types of the organism. Therefore, a PSC can give rise to cells of all germ layers of the organism (e.g., the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm of a vertebrate). Pluripotent cells are capable of forming teratomas and of contributing to ectoderm, mesoderm, or endoderm tissues in a living organism. Pluripotent stem cells of plants are capable of giving rise to all cell types of the plant (e.g., cells of the root, stem, leaves, etc.).
  • PSCs of animals can be derived in a number of different ways.
  • embryonic stem cells ESCs
  • iPSCs induced pluripotent stem cells
  • somatic cells Takahashi et. al, Cell. 2007 Nov. 30; 131(5):861-72; Takahashi et. al, Nat Protoc. 2007; 2(12):3081-9; Yu et. al, Science. 2007 Dec. 21; 318(5858):1917-20. Epub 2007 Nov. 20).
  • PSC refers to pluripotent stem cells regardless of their derivation
  • the term PSC encompasses the terms ESC and iPSC, as well as the term embryonic germ stem cells (EGSC), which are another example of a PSC.
  • ESC and iPSC as well as the term embryonic germ stem cells (EGSC), which are another example of a PSC.
  • EGSC embryonic germ stem cells
  • PSCs may be in the form of an established cell line, they may be obtained directly from primary embryonic tissue, or they may be derived from a somatic cell. PSCs can be target cells of the methods described herein.
  • ESC embryonic stem cell
  • ESC lines are listed in the NIH Human Embryonic Stem Cell Registry, e.g.
  • Stem cells of interest also include embryonic stem cells from other primates, such as Rhesus stem cells and marmoset stem cells.
  • the stem cells may be obtained from any mammalian species, e.g.
  • ESCs typically grow as flat colonies with large nucleo-cytoplasmic ratios, defined borders and prominent nucleoli.
  • ESCs express SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60, TRA-1-81, and Alkaline Phosphatase, but not SSEA-1.
  • Examples of methods of generating and characterizing ESCs may be found in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,029,913, U.S. Pat. No. 5,843,780, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,200,806, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.
  • Methods for proliferating hESCs in the undifferentiated form are described in WO 99/20741, WO 01/51616, and WO 03/020920.
  • EGSC embryonic germ stem cell
  • EG cell a PSC that is derived from germ cells and/or germ cell progenitors, e.g. primordial germ cells, i.e. those that would become sperm and eggs.
  • Embryonic germ cells EG cells
  • Examples of methods of generating and characterizing EG cells may be found in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,153,684; Matsui, Y., et al., (1992) Cell 70:841; Shamblott, M., et al. (2001) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
  • iPSC induced pluripotent stem cell
  • iPSCs can be derived from multiple different cell types, including terminally differentiated cells. iPSCs have an ES cell-like morphology, growing as flat colonies with large nucleo-cytoplasmic ratios, defined borders and prominent nuclei.
  • iPSCs express one or more key pluripotency markers known by one of ordinary skill in the art, including but not limited to Alkaline Phosphatase, SSEA3, SSEA4, Sox2, Oct3/4, Nanog, TRA160, TRA181, TDGF 1, Dnmt3b, FoxD3, GDF3, Cyp26a1, TERT, and zfp42.
  • Examples of methods of generating and characterizing iPSCs may be found in, for example, U.S. Patent Publication Nos. US20090047263, US20090068742, US20090191159, US20090227032, US20090246875, and US20090304646, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.
  • somatic cells are provided with reprogramming factors (e.g. Oct4, SOX2, KLF4, MYC, Nanog, Lin28, etc.) known in the art to reprogram the somatic cells to become pluripotent stem cells.
  • reprogramming factors e.g. Oct4, SOX2, KLF4, MYC, Nanog, Lin28, etc.
  • somatic cell it is meant any cell in an organism that, in the absence of experimental manipulation, does not ordinarily give rise to all types of cells in an organism.
  • somatic cells are cells that have differentiated sufficiently that they will not naturally generate cells of all three germ layers of the body, i.e. ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
  • somatic cells would include both neurons and neural progenitors, the latter of which may be able to naturally give rise to all or some cell types of the central nervous system but cannot give rise to cells of the mesoderm or endoderm lineages.
  • mitotic cell it is meant a cell undergoing mitosis.
  • Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its nucleus into two identical sets in two separate nuclei. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components.
  • post-mitotic cell it is meant a cell that has exited from mitosis, i.e., it is “quiescent”, i.e. it is no longer undergoing divisions. This quiescent state may be temporary, i.e. reversible, or it may be permanent.
  • meiotic cell it is meant a cell that is undergoing meiosis.
  • Meiosis is the process by which a cell divides its nuclear material for the purpose of producing gametes or spores. Unlike mitosis, in meiosis, the chromosomes undergo a recombination step which shuffles genetic material between chromosomes. Additionally, the outcome of meiosis is four (genetically unique) haploid cells, as compared with the two (genetically identical) diploid cells produced from mitosis.
  • HDR homology-directed repair
  • Homology-directed repair may result in an alteration of the sequence of the target molecule (e.g., insertion, deletion, mutation), if the donor polynucleotide differs from the target molecule and part or all of the sequence of the donor polynucleotide is incorporated into the target DNA.
  • the donor polynucleotide, a portion of the donor polynucleotide, a copy of the donor polynucleotide, or a portion of a copy of the donor polynucleotide integrates into the target DNA.
  • non-homologous end joining it is meant the repair of double-strand breaks in DNA by direct ligation of the break ends to one another without the need for a homologous template (in contrast to homology-directed repair, which requires a homologous sequence to guide repair). NHEJ often results in the loss (deletion) of nucleotide sequence near the site of the double-strand break.
  • treatment generally mean obtaining a desired pharmacologic and/or physiologic effect.
  • the effect may be prophylactic in terms of completely or partially preventing a disease or symptom thereof and/or may be therapeutic in terms of a partial or complete cure for a disease and/or adverse effect attributable to the disease.
  • Treatment covers any treatment of a disease or symptom in a mammal, and includes: (a) preventing the disease or symptom from occurring in a subject which may be predisposed to acquiring the disease or symptom but has not yet been diagnosed as having it; (b) inhibiting the disease or symptom, i.e., arresting its development; or (c) relieving the disease, i.e., causing regression of the disease.
  • the therapeutic agent may be administered before, during or after the onset of disease or injury.
  • the treatment of ongoing disease, where the treatment stabilizes or reduces the undesirable clinical symptoms of the patient, is of particular interest. Such treatment is desirably performed prior to complete loss of function in the affected tissues.
  • the subject therapy will desirably be administered during the symptomatic stage of the disease, and in some cases after the symptomatic stage of the disease.
  • the terms “individual,” “subject,” “host,” and “patient,” are used interchangeably herein and refer to any mammalian subject for whom diagnosis, treatment, or therapy is desired, particularly humans.
  • the present disclosure provides a DNA-targeting RNA that comprises a targeting sequence and, together with a modifying polypeptide, provides for site-specific modification of a target DNA and/or a polypeptide associated with the target DNA.
  • the present disclosure further provides site-specific modifying polypeptides.
  • the present disclosure further provides methods of site-specific modification of a target DNA and/or a polypeptide associated with the target DNA.
  • the present disclosure provides methods of modulating transcription of a target nucleic acid in a target cell, generally involving contacting the target nucleic acid with an enzymatically inactive Cas9 polypeptide and a DNA-targeting RNA. Kits and compositions for carrying out the methods are also provided.
  • the present disclosure provides genetically modified cells that produce Cas9; and Cas9 transgenic non-human multicellular organisms.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA that directs the activities of an associated polypeptide (e.g., a site-directed modifying polypeptide) to a specific target sequence within a target DNA.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA comprises: a first segment (also referred to herein as a “DNA-targeting segment” or a “DNA-targeting sequence”) and a second segment (also referred to herein as a “protein-binding segment” or a “protein-binding sequence”).
  • the DNA-targeting segment of a subject DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA.
  • the DNA-targeting segment of a subject DNA-targeting RNA interacts with a target DNA in a sequence-specific manner via hybridization (i.e., base pairing).
  • the nucleotide sequence of the DNA-targeting segment may vary and determines the location within the target DNA that the DNA-targeting RNA and the target DNA will interact.
  • the DNA-targeting segment of a subject DNA-targeting RNA can be modified (e.g., by genetic engineering) to hybridize to any desired sequence within a target DNA.
  • the DNA-targeting segment can have a length of from about 12 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides.
  • the DNA-targeting segment can have a length of from about 12 nucleotides (nt) to about 80 nt, from about 12 nt to about 50 nt, from about 12 nt to about 40 nt, from about 12 nt to about 30 nt, from about 12 nt to about 25 nt, from about 12 nt to about 20 nt, or from about 12 nt to about 19 nt.
  • the DNA-targeting segment can have a length of from about 19 nt to about 20 nt, from about 19 nt to about 25 nt, from about 19 nt to about 30 nt, from about 19 nt to about 35 nt, from about 19 nt to about 40 nt, from about 19 nt to about 45 nt, from about 19 nt to about 50 nt, from about 19 nt to about 60 nt, from about 19 nt to about 70 nt, from about 19 nt to about 80 nt, from about 19 nt to about 90 nt, from about 19 nt to about 100 nt, from about 20 nt to about 25 nt, from about 20 nt to about 30 nt, from about 20 nt to about 35 nt, from about 20 nt to about 40 nt, from about 20 nt to about 45 nt, from about 20 nt to about 50 nt, from about 20 nt,
  • the nucleotide sequence (the DNA-targeting sequence) of the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a nucleotide sequence (target sequence) of the target DNA can have a length at least about 12 nt.
  • the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a target sequence of the target DNA can have a length at least about 12 nt, at least about 15 nt, at least about 18 nt, at least about 19 nt, at least about 20 nt, at least about 25 nt, at least about 30 nt, at least about 35 nt or at least about 40 nt.
  • the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a target sequence of the target DNA can have a length of from about 12 nucleotides (nt) to about 80 nt, from about 12 nt to about 50 nt, from about 12 nt to about 45 nt, from about 12 nt to about 40 nt, from about 12 nt to about 35 nt, from about 12 nt to about 30 nt, from about 12 nt to about 25 nt, from about 12 nt to about 20 nt, from about 12 nt to about 19 nt, from about 19 nt to about 20 nt, from about 19 nt to about 25 nt, from about 19 nt to about 30 nt, from about 19 nt to about 35 nt, from about 19 nt to about 40 nt, from about 19 nt to about 45 nt, from about 19 nt to about 50 nt, from about 19 nt to
  • the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a target sequence of the target DNA is 20 nucleotides in length. In some cases, the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a target sequence of the target DNA is 19 nucleotides in length.
  • the percent complementarity between the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment and the target sequence of the target DNA can be at least 60% (e.g., at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100%). In some cases, the percent complementarity between the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment and the target sequence of the target DNA is 100% over the seven contiguous 5′-most nucleotides of the target sequence of the complementary strand of the target DNA.
  • the percent complementarity between the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment and the target sequence of the target DNA is at least 60% over about 20 contiguous nucleotides. In some cases, the percent complementarity between the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment and the target sequence of the target DNA is 100% over the fourteen contiguous 5′-most nucleotides of the target sequence of the complementary strand of the target DNA and as low as 0% over the remainder. In such a case, the DNA-targeting sequence can be considered to be 14 nucleotides in length (see FIG. 12D-E ).
  • the percent complementarity between the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment and the target sequence of the target DNA is 100% over the seven contiguous 5′-most nucleotides of the target sequence of the complementary strand of the target DNA and as low as 0% over the remainder.
  • the DNA-targeting sequence can be considered to be 7 nucleotides in length.
  • the protein-binding segment of a subject DNA-targeting RNA interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the subject DNA-targeting RNA guides the bound polypeptide to a specific nucleotide sequence within target DNA via the above mentioned DNA-targeting segment.
  • the protein-binding segment of a subject DNA-targeting RNA comprises two stretches of nucleotides that are complementary to one another. The complementary nucleotides of the protein-binding segment hybridize to form a double stranded RNA duplex (dsRNA) (see FIGS. 1A and 1B ).
  • dsRNA double stranded RNA duplex
  • a subject double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises two separate RNA molecules.
  • Each of the two RNA molecules of a subject double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises a stretch of nucleotides that are complementary to one another such that the complementary nucleotides of the two RNA molecules hybridize to form the double stranded RNA duplex of the protein-binding segment ( FIG. 1A ).
  • the duplex-forming segment of the activator-RNA is at least about 60% identical to one of the activator-RNA (tracrRNA) molecules set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562, or a complement thereof, over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • the duplex-forming segment of the activator-RNA (or the DNA encoding the duplex-forming segment of the activator-RNA) is at least about 60% identical, at least about 65% identical, at least about 70% identical, at least about 75% identical, at least about 80% identical, at least about 85% identical, at least about 90% identical, at least about 95% identical, at least about 98% identical, at least about 99% identical, or 100% identical, to one of the tracrRNA sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562, or a complement thereof, over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • the duplex-forming segment of the targeter-RNA is at least about 60% identical to one of the targeter-RNA (crRNA) sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:563-679, or a complement thereof, over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • the duplex-forming segment of the targeter-RNA (or the DNA encoding the duplex-forming segment of the targeter-RNA) is at least about 65% identical, at least about 70% identical, at least about 75% identical, at least about 80% identical, at least about 85% identical, at least about 90% identical, at least about 95% identical, at least about 98% identical, at least about 99% identical or 100% identical to one of the crRNA sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:563-679, or a complement thereof, over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • a two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can be designed to allow for controlled (i.e., conditional) binding of a targeter-RNA with an activator-RNA. Because a two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA is not functional unless both the activator-RNA and the targeter-RNA are bound in a functional complex with dCas9, a two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can be inducible (e.g., drug inducible) by rendering the binding between the activator-RNA and the targeter-RNA to be inducible.
  • RNA aptamers can be used to regulate (i.e., control) the binding of the activator-RNA with the targeter-RNA. Accordingly, the activator-RNA and/or the targeter-RNA can comprise an RNA aptamer sequence.
  • RNA aptamers are known in the art and are generally a synthetic version of a riboswitch.
  • the terms “RNA aptamer” and “riboswitch” are used interchangeably herein to encompass both synthetic and natural nucleic acid sequences that provide for inducible regulation of the structure (and therefore the availability of specific sequences) of the RNA molecule of which they are part.
  • RNA aptamers usually comprise a sequence that folds into a particular structure (e.g., a hairpin), which specifically binds a particular drug (e.g., a small molecule). Binding of the drug causes a structural change in the folding of the RNA, which changes a feature of the nucleic acid of which the aptamer is a part.
  • an activator-RNA with an aptamer may not be able to bind to the cognate targeter-RNA unless the aptamer is bound by the appropriate drug;
  • a targeter-RNA with an aptamer may not be able to bind to the cognate activator-RNA unless the aptamer is bound by the appropriate drug;
  • a targeter-RNA and an activator-RNA, each comprising a different aptamer that binds a different drug may not be able to bind to each other unless both drugs are present.
  • a two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can be designed to be inducible.
  • aptamers and riboswitches can be found, for example, in: Nakamura et al., Genes Cells. 2012 May; 17(5):344-64; Vavalle et al., Future Cardiol. 2012 May; 8(3):371-82; Citartan et al., Biosens Bioelectron. 2012 Apr. 15; 34(1):1-11; and Liberman et al., Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2012 May-June; 3(3):369-84; all of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.
  • Non-limiting examples of nucleotide sequences that can be included in a two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA include either of the sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562, or complements thereof pairing with any sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:563-679, or complements thereof that can hybridize to form a protein binding segment.
  • a subject single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises two stretches of nucleotides (a targeter-RNA and an activator-RNA) that are complementary to one another, are covalently linked by intervening nucleotides (“linkers” or “linker nucleotides”), and hybridize to form the double stranded RNA duplex (dsRNA duplex) of the protein-binding segment, thus resulting in a stem-loop structure ( FIG. 1B ).
  • the targeter-RNA and the activator-RNA can be covalently linked via the 3′ end of the targeter-RNA and the 5′ end of the activator-RNA.
  • targeter-RNA and the activator-RNA can be covalently linked via the 5′ end of the targeter-RNA and the 3′ end of the activator-RNA.
  • the linker of a single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can have a length of from about 3 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides.
  • the linker can have a length of from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 90 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 80 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 70 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 60 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 50 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 40 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 30 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 20 nt or from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 10 nt.
  • the linker can have a length of from about 3 nt to about 5 nt, from about 5 nt to about 10 nt, from about 10 nt to about 15 nt, from about 15 nt to about 20 nt, from about 20 nt to about 25 nt, from about 25 nt to about 30 nt, from about 30 nt to about 35 nt, from about 35 nt to about 40 nt, from about 40 nt to about 50 nt, from about 50 nt to about 60 nt, from about 60 nt to about 70 nt, from about 70 nt to about 80 nt, from about 80 nt to about 90 nt, or from about 90 nt to about 100 nt.
  • the linker of a single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA is 4 nt.
  • An exemplary single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises two complementary stretches of nucleotides that hybridize to form a dsRNA duplex.
  • one of the two complementary stretches of nucleotides of the single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA (or the DNA encoding the stretch) is at least about 60% identical to one of the activator-RNA (tracrRNA) molecules set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562, or a complement thereof, over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • one of the two complementary stretches of nucleotides of the single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA is at least about 65% identical, at least about 70% identical, at least about 75% identical, at least about 80% identical, at least about 85% identical, at least about 90% identical, at least about 95% identical, at least about 98% identical, at least about 99% identical or 100% identical to one of the tracrRNA sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562, or a complement thereof, over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • one of the two complementary stretches of nucleotides of the single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA is at least about 60% identical to one of the targeter-RNA (crRNA) sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:563-679, or a complement thereof, over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • crRNA targeter-RNA
  • one of the two complementary stretches of nucleotides of the single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA is at least about 65% identical, at least about 70% identical, at least about 75% identical, at least about 80% identical, at least about 85% identical, at least about 90% identical, at least about 95% identical, at least about 98% identical, at least about 99% identical or 100% identical to one of the crRNA sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:563-679, or a complement thereof, over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • Appropriate naturally occurring cognate pairs of crRNAs and tracrRNAs can be routinely determined for SEQ ID NOs:431-679 by taking into account the species name and base-pairing (for the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding domain) when determining appropriate cognate pairs (see FIG. 8 as a non-limiting example).
  • FIG. 57 demonstrates that artificial sequences that share very little (roughly 50% identity) with naturally occurring a tracrRNAs and crRNAs can function with Cas9 to cleave target DNA as long as the structure of the protein-binding domain of the DNA-targeting RNA is conserved.
  • RNA folding structure of a naturally occurring protein-binding domain of a DNA-trageting RNA can be taken into account in order to design artificial protein-binding domains (either two-molecule or single-molecule versions).
  • 57 was designed based on the structure of the protein-binding segment of the naturally occurring DNA-targeting (e.g., including the same number of base pairs along the RNA duplex and including the same “buldge” region as present in the naturally occurring RNA).
  • an artificial DNA-targeting-RNA can be designed to mimic the natural structure for a given species when using the Cas9 (or a related Cas9, see FIG. 32A ) from that species. (see FIG. 24D and related details in Example 1).
  • a suitable DNA-targeting RNA can be an artificially designed RNA (non-naturally occurring) comprising a protein-binding domain that was designed to mimic the structure of a protein-binding domain of a naturally occurring DNA-targeting RNA. (see SEQ ID NOs:431-679, taking into account the species name when determining appropriate cognate pairs).
  • the protein-binding segment can have a length of from about 10 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides.
  • the protein-binding segment can have a length of from about 15 nucleotides (nt) to about 80 nt, from about 15 nt to about 50 nt, from about 15 nt to about 40 nt, from about 15 nt to about 30 nt or from about 15 nt to about 25 nt.
  • the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment can have a length from about 6 base pairs (bp) to about 50 bp.
  • the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment can have a length from about 6 bp to about 40 bp, from about 6 bp to about 30 bp, from about 6 bp to about 25 bp, from about 6 bp to about 20 bp, from about 6 bp to about 15 bp, from about 8 bp to about 40 bp, from about 8 bp to about 30 bp, from about 8 bp to about 25 bp, from about 8 bp to about 20 bp or from about 8 bp to about 15 bp.
  • the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment can have a length from about from about 8 bp to about 10 bp, from about 10 bp to about 15 bp, from about 15 bp to about 18 bp, from about 18 bp to about 20 bp, from about 20 bp to about 25 bp, from about 25 bp to about 30 bp, from about 30 bp to about 35 bp, from about 35 bp to about 40 bp, or from about 40 bp to about 50 bp.
  • the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment has a length of 36 base pairs.
  • the percent complementarity between the nucleotide sequences that hybridize to form the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment can be at least about 60%.
  • the percent complementarity between the nucleotide sequences that hybridize to form the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment can be at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, or at least about 99%.
  • the percent complementarity between the nucleotide sequences that hybridize to form the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment is 100%.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA and a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide form a complex.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA provides target specificity to the complex by comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence of a target DNA (as noted above).
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide of the complex provides the site-specific activity.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide is guided to a DNA sequence (e.g. a chromosomal sequence or an extrachromosomal sequence, e.g. an episomal sequence, a minicircle sequence, a mitochondrial sequence, a chloroplast sequence, etc.) by virtue of its association with at least the protein-binding segment of the DNA-targeting RNA (described above).
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide modifies target DNA (e.g., cleavage or methylation of target DNA) and/or a polypeptide associated with target DNA (e.g., methylation or acetylation of a histone tail).
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide is also referred to herein as a “site-directed polypeptide” or an “RNA binding site-directed modifying polypeptide.”
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide is a naturally-occurring modifying polypeptide. In other cases, the site-directed modifying polypeptide is not a naturally-occurring polypeptide (e.g., a chimeric polypeptide as discussed below or a naturally-occurring polypeptide that is modified, e.g., mutation, deletion, insertion).
  • Exemplary naturally-occurring site-directed modifying polypeptides are set forth in SEQ ID NOs:1-255 as a non-limiting and non-exhaustive list of naturally occurring Cas9/Csn1 endonucleases. These naturally occurring polypeptides, as disclosed herein, bind a DNA-targeting RNA, are thereby directed to a specific sequence within a target DNA, and cleave the target DNA to generate a double strand break.
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises two portions, an RNA-binding portion and an activity portion.
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (i) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (ii) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity (e.g., activity for DNA methylation, activity for DNA cleavage, activity for histone acetylation, activity for histone methylation, etc.), wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • site-directed enzymatic activity e.g., activity for DNA methylation, activity for DNA cleavage, activity for histone acetylation, activity for histone methylation, etc.
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (i) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (ii) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA (e.g., to increase or decrease transcription), wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide has enzymatic activity that modifies target DNA (e.g., nuclease activity, methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, DNA repair activity, DNA damage activity, deamination activity, dismutase activity, alkylation activity, depurination activity, oxidation activity, pyrimidine dimer forming activity, integrase activity, transposase activity, recombinase activity, polymerase activity, ligase activity, helicase activity, photolyase activity or glycosylase activity).
  • target DNA e.g., nuclease activity, methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, DNA repair activity, DNA damage activity, deamination activity, dismutase activity, alkylation activity, depurination activity, oxidation activity, pyrimidine dimer forming activity, integrase activity, transposase activity, recombinase activity, polymerase
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide has enzymatic activity that modifies a polypeptide (e.g., a histone) associated with target DNA (e.g., methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity, deubiquitinating activity, adenylation activity, deadenylation activity, SUMOylating activity, deSUMOylating activity, ribosylation activity, deribosylation activity, myristoylation activity or demyristoylation activity).
  • a polypeptide e.g., a histone
  • target DNA e.g., methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, or 100%, amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • a subject nucleic acid comprises one or more modifications, e.g., a base modification, a backbone modification, etc, to provide the nucleic acid with a new or enhanced feature (e.g., improved stability).
  • a nucleoside is a base-sugar combination.
  • the base portion of the nucleoside is normally a heterocyclic base.
  • the two most common classes of such heterocyclic bases are the purines and the pyrimidines.
  • Nucleotides are nucleosides that further include a phosphate group covalently linked to the sugar portion of the nucleoside.
  • the phosphate group can be linked to the 2′, the 3′, or the 5′ hydroxyl moiety of the sugar.
  • the phosphate groups covalently link adjacent nucleosides to one another to form a linear polymeric compound.
  • the respective ends of this linear polymeric compound can be further joined to form a circular compound, however, linear compounds are generally suitable.
  • linear compounds may have internal nucleotide base complementarity and may therefore fold in a manner as to produce a fully or partially double-stranded compound.
  • the phosphate groups are commonly referred to as forming the internucleoside backbone of the oligonucleotide.
  • the normal linkage or backbone of RNA and DNA is a 3′ to 5′ phosphodiester linkage.
  • nucleic acids containing modifications include nucleic acids containing modified backbones or non-natural internucleoside linkages.
  • Nucleic acids (having modified backbones include those that retain a phosphorus atom in the backbone and those that do not have a phosphorus atom in the backbone.
  • Suitable modified oligonucleotide backbones containing a phosphorus atom therein include, for example, phosphorothioates, chiral phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates, phosphotriesters, aminoalkylphosphotriesters, methyl and other alkyl phosphonates including 3′-alkylene phosphonates, 5′-alkylene phosphonates and chiral phosphonates, phosphinates, phosphoramidates including 3′-amino phosphoramidate and aminoalkylphosphoramidates, phosphorodiamidates, thionophosphoramidates, thionoalkylphosphonates, thionoalkylphosphotriesters, selenophosphates and boranophosphates having normal 3′-5′ linkages, 2′-5′ linked analogs of these, and those having inverted polarity wherein one or more internucleotide linkages is a 3′ to 3′, 5′ to 5′
  • Suitable oligonucleotides having inverted polarity comprise a single 3′ to 3′ linkage at the 3′-most internucleotide linkage i.e. a single inverted nucleoside residue which may be a basic (the nucleobase is missing or has a hydroxyl group in place thereof).
  • Various salts such as, for example, potassium or sodium), mixed salts and free acid forms are also included.
  • a subject nucleic acid comprises one or more phosphorothioate and/or heteroatom internucleoside linkages, in particular —CH 2 —NH—O—CH 2 —, —CH 2 —N(CH 3 )—O—CH 2 — (known as a methylene (methylimino) or MMI backbone), —CH 2 —O—N(CH 3 )—CH 2 —, —CH 2 —N(CH 3 )—N(CH 3 )—CH 2 — and —O—N(CH 3 )—CH 2 —CH 2 — (wherein the native phosphodiester internucleotide linkage is represented as —O—P( ⁇ O)(OH)—O—CH 2 —).
  • MMI type internucleoside linkages are disclosed in the above referenced U.S. Pat. No. 5,489,677. Suitable amide internucleoside linkages are disclosed in t U.S. Pat. No. 5,602,
  • nucleic acids having morpholino backbone structures as described in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,506.
  • a subject nucleic acid comprises a 6-membered morpholino ring in place of a ribose ring.
  • a phosphorodiamidate or other non-phosphodiester internucleoside linkage replaces a phosphodiester linkage.
  • Suitable modified polynucleotide backbones that do not include a phosphorus atom therein have backbones that are formed by short chain alkyl or cycloalkyl internucleoside linkages, mixed heteroatom and alkyl or cycloalkyl internucleoside linkages, or one or more short chain heteroatomic or heterocyclic internucleoside linkages.
  • morpholino linkages formed in part from the sugar portion of a nucleoside
  • siloxane backbones sulfide, sulfoxide and sulfone backbones
  • formacetyl and thioformacetyl backbones methylene formacetyl and thioformacetyl backbones
  • riboacetyl backbones alkene containing backbones; sulfamate backbones; methyleneimino and methylenehydrazino backbones; sulfonate and sulfonamide backbones; amide backbones; and others having mixed N, O, S and CH 2 component parts.
  • a subject nucleic acid can be a nucleic acid mimetic.
  • the term “mimetic” as it is applied to polynucleotides is intended to include polynucleotides wherein only the furanose ring or both the furanose ring and the internucleotide linkage are replaced with non-furanose groups, replacement of only the furanose ring is also referred to in the art as being a sugar surrogate.
  • the heterocyclic base moiety or a modified heterocyclic base moiety is maintained for hybridization with an appropriate target nucleic acid.
  • One such nucleic acid, a polynucleotide mimetic that has been shown to have excellent hybridization properties is referred to as a peptide nucleic acid (PNA).
  • PNA peptide nucleic acid
  • the sugar-backbone of a polynucleotide is replaced with an amide containing backbone, in particular an aminoethylglycine backbone.
  • the nucleotides are retained and are bound directly or indirectly to aza nitrogen atoms of the amide portion of the backbone.
  • PNA peptide nucleic acid
  • the backbone in PNA compounds is two or more linked aminoethylglycine units which gives PNA an amide containing backbone.
  • the heterocyclic base moieties are bound directly or indirectly to aza nitrogen atoms of the amide portion of the backbone.
  • Representative U.S. patents that describe the preparation of PNA compounds include, but are not limited to: U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,539,082; 5,714,331; and 5,719,262.
  • Another class of polynucleotide mimetic that has been studied is based on linked morpholino units (morpholino nucleic acid) having heterocyclic bases attached to the morpholino ring.
  • a number of linking groups have been reported that link the morpholino monomeric units in a morpholino nucleic acid.
  • One class of linking groups has been selected to give a non-ionic oligomeric compound.
  • the non-ionic morpholino-based oligomeric compounds are less likely to have undesired interactions with cellular proteins.
  • Morpholino-based polynucleotides are non-ionic mimics of oligonucleotides which are less likely to form undesired interactions with cellular proteins (Dwaine A. Braasch and David R.
  • Morpholino-based polynucleotides are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,506. A variety of compounds within the morpholino class of polynucleotides have been prepared, having a variety of different linking groups joining the monomeric subunits.
  • CeNA cyclohexenyl nucleic acids
  • the furanose ring normally present in a DNA/RNA molecule is replaced with a cyclohexenyl ring.
  • CeNA DMT protected phosphoramidite monomers have been prepared and used for oligomeric compound synthesis following classical phosphoramidite chemistry.
  • Fully modified CeNA oligomeric compounds and oligonucleotides having specific positions modified with CeNA have been prepared and studied (see Wang et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2000, 122, 8595-8602). In general the incorporation of CeNA monomers into a DNA chain increases its stability of a DNA/RNA hybrid.
  • CeNA oligoadenylates formed complexes with RNA and DNA complements with similar stability to the native complexes.
  • the study of incorporating CeNA structures into natural nucleic acid structures was shown by NMR and circular dichroism to proceed with easy conformational adaptation.
  • a further modification includes Locked Nucleic Acids (LNAs) in which the 2′-hydroxyl group is linked to the 4′ carbon atom of the sugar ring thereby forming a 2′-C,4′-C-oxymethylene linkage thereby forming a bicyclic sugar moiety.
  • the linkage can be a methylene (—CH 2 —), group bridging the 2′ oxygen atom and the 4′ carbon atom wherein n is 1 or 2 (Singh et al., Chem. Commun., 1998, 4, 455-456).
  • Potent and nontoxic antisense oligonucleotides containing LNAs have been described (Wahlestedt et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 2000, 97, 5633-5638).
  • LNA monomers adenine, cytosine, guanine, 5-methylcytosine, thymine and uracil, along with their oligomerization, and nucleic acid recognition properties have been described (Koshkin et al., Tetrahedron, 1998, 54, 3607-3630). LNAs and preparation thereof are also described in WO 98/39352 and WO 99/14226.
  • a subject nucleic acid can also include one or more substituted sugar moieties.
  • Suitable polynucleotides comprise a sugar substituent group selected from: OH; F; O-, S-, or N-alkyl; O-, S-, or N-alkenyl; O-, S- or N-alkynyl; or O-alkyl-O-alkyl, wherein the alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl may be substituted or unsubstituted C.sub.1 to C 10 alkyl or C 2 to C 10 alkenyl and alkynyl.
  • Suitable polynucleotides comprise a sugar substituent group selected from: C 1 to C 10 lower alkyl, substituted lower alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkaryl, aralkyl, O-alkaryl or O-aralkyl, SH, SCH 3 , OCN, Cl, Br, CN, CF 3 , OCF 3 , SOCH 3 , SO 2 CH 3 , ONO 2 , NO 2 , N 3 , NH 2 , heterocycloalkyl, heterocycloalkaryl, aminoalkylamino, polyalkylamino, substituted silyl, an RNA cleaving group, a reporter group, an intercalator, a group for improving the pharmacokinetic properties of an oligonucleotide, or a group for improving the pharmacodynamic properties of an oligonucleotide, and other substituents having similar properties.
  • a sugar substituent group selected from: C 1 to C 10 lower alkyl,
  • a suitable modification includes 2′-methoxyethoxy (2′-O—CH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 , also known as 2′-O-(2-methoxyethyl) or 2′-MOE) (Martin et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 1995, 78, 486-504) i.e., an alkoxyalkoxy group.
  • a further suitable modification includes 2′-dimethylaminooxyethoxy, i.e., a O(CH 2 ) 2 ON(CH 3 ) 2 group, also known as 2′-DMAOE, as described in examples hereinbelow, and 2′-dimethylaminoethoxyethoxy (also known in the art as 2′-O-dimethyl-amino-ethoxy-ethyl or 2′-DMAEOE), i.e., 2′-O—CH 2 —O—CH 2 —N(CH 3 ) 2 .
  • sugar substituent groups include methoxy (—O—CH 3 ), aminopropoxy (—OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 NH 2 ), allyl (—CH 2 —CH ⁇ CH 2 ), —O-allyl (—O—CH 2 —CH ⁇ CH 2 ) and fluoro (F).
  • 2′-sugar substituent groups may be in the arabino (up) position or ribo (down) position.
  • a suitable 2′-arabino modification is 2′-F.
  • Similar modifications may also be made at other positions on the oligomeric compound, particularly the 3′ position of the sugar on the 3′ terminal nucleoside or in 2′-5′ linked oligonucleotides and the 5′ position of 5′ terminal nucleotide.
  • Oligomeric compounds may also have sugar mimetics such as cyclobutyl moieties in place of the pentofuranosyl sugar.
  • a subject nucleic acid may also include nucleobase (often referred to in the art simply as “base”) modifications or substitutions.
  • nucleobases include the purine bases adenine (A) and guanine (G), and the pyrimidine bases thymine (T), cytosine (C) and uracil (U).
  • Modified nucleobases include other synthetic and natural nucleobases such as 5-methylcytosine (5-me-C), 5-hydroxymethyl cytosine, xanthine, hypoxanthine, 2-aminoadenine, 6-methyl and other alkyl derivatives of adenine and guanine, 2-propyl and other alkyl derivatives of adenine and guanine, 2-thiouracil, 2-thiothymine and 2-thiocytosine, 5-halouracil and cytosine, 5-propynyl (—C ⁇ C—CH 3 ) uracil and cytosine and other alkynyl derivatives of pyrimidine bases, 6-azo uracil, cytosine and thymine, 5-uracil (pseudouracil), 4-thiouracil, 8-halo, 8-amino, 8-thiol, 8-thioalkyl, 8-hydroxyl and other 8-substituted adenines and gu
  • nucleobases include tricyclic pyrimidines such as phenoxazine cytidine(1H-pyrimido(5,4-b)(1,4)benzoxazin-2(3H)-one), phenothiazine cytidine (1H-pyrimido(5,4-b)(1,4)benzothiazin-2(3H)-one), G-clamps such as a substituted phenoxazine cytidine (e.g.
  • Heterocyclic base moieties may also include those in which the purine or pyrimidine base is replaced with other heterocycles, for example 7-deaza-adenine, 7-deazaguanosine, 2-aminopyridine and 2-pyridone.
  • Further nucleobases include those disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,687,808, those disclosed in The Concise Encyclopedia Of Polymer Science And Engineering, pages 858-859, Kroschwitz, J. I., ed. John Wiley & Sons, 1990, those disclosed by Englisch et al., Angewandte Chemie, International Edition, 1991, 30, 613, and those disclosed by Sanghvi, Y.
  • nucleobases are useful for increasing the binding affinity of an oligomeric compound.
  • These include 5-substituted pyrimidines, 6-azapyrimidines and N-2, N-6 and O-6 substituted purines, including 2-aminopropyladenine, 5-propynyluracil and 5-propynylcytosine. 5-methylcytosine substitutions have been shown to increase nucleic acid duplex stability by 0.6-1.2° C.
  • Another possible modification of a subject nucleic acid involves chemically linking to the polynucleotide one or more moieties or conjugates which enhance the activity, cellular distribution or cellular uptake of the oligonucleotide.
  • moieties or conjugates can include conjugate groups covalently bound to functional groups such as primary or secondary hydroxyl groups.
  • Conjugate groups include, but are not limited to, intercalators, reporter molecules, polyamines, polyamides, polyethylene glycols, polyethers, groups that enhance the pharmacodynamic properties of oligomers, and groups that enhance the pharmacokinetic properties of oligomers.
  • Suitable conjugate groups include, but are not limited to, cholesterols, lipids, phospholipids, biotin, phenazine, folate, phenanthridine, anthraquinone, acridine, fluoresceins, rhodamines, coumarins, and dyes.
  • Groups that enhance the pharmacodynamic properties include groups that improve uptake, enhance resistance to degradation, and/or strengthen sequence-specific hybridization with the target nucleic acid.
  • Groups that enhance the pharmacokinetic properties include groups that improve uptake, distribution, metabolism or excretion of a subject nucleic acid.
  • Conjugate moieties include but are not limited to lipid moieties such as a cholesterol moiety (Letsinger et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1989, 86, 6553-6556), cholic acid (Manoharan et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. Let., 1994, 4, 1053-1060), a thioether, e.g., hexyl-S-tritylthiol (Manoharan et al., Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1992, 660, 306-309; Manoharan et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem.
  • lipid moieties such as a cholesterol moiety (Letsinger et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1989, 86, 6553-6556), cholic acid (Manoharan et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. Let., 1994, 4, 1053
  • Acids Res., 1990, 18, 3777-3783 a polyamine or a polyethylene glycol chain (Manoharan et al., Nucleosides & Nucleotides, 1995, 14, 969-973), or adamantane acetic acid (Manoharan et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 1995, 36, 3651-3654), a palmityl moiety (Mishra et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1995, 1264, 229-237), or an octadecylamine or hexylamino-carbonyl-oxycholesterol moiety (Crooke et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1996, 277, 923-937. ⁇
  • a conjugate may include a “Protein Transduction Domain” or PTD (also known as a CPP—cell penetrating peptide), which may refer to a polypeptide, polynucleotide, carbohydrate, or organic or inorganic compound that facilitates traversing a lipid bilayer, micelle, cell membrane, organelle membrane, or vesicle membrane.
  • PTD Protein Transduction Domain
  • a PTD attached to another molecule which can range from a small polar molecule to a large macromolecule and/or a nanoparticle, facilitates the molecule traversing a membrane, for example going from extracellular space to intracellular space, or cytosol to within an organelle.
  • a PTD is covalently linked to the amino terminus of an exogenous polypeptide (e.g., a site-directed modifying polypeptide). In some embodiments, a PTD is covalently linked to the carboxyl terminus of an exogenous polypeptide (e.g., a site-directed modifying polypeptide). In some embodiments, a PTD is covalently linked to a nucleic acid (e.g., a DNA-targeting RNA, a polynucleotide encoding a DNA-targeting RNA, a polynucleotide encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide, etc.).
  • a nucleic acid e.g., a DNA-targeting RNA, a polynucleotide encoding a DNA-targeting RNA, a polynucleotide encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide, etc.
  • Exemplary PTDs include but are not limited to a minimal undecapeptide protein transduction domain (corresponding to residues 47-57 of HIV-1 TAT comprising YGRKKRRQRRR; SEQ ID NO:264); a polyarginine sequence comprising a number of arginines sufficient to direct entry into a cell (e.g., 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or 10-50 arginines); a VP22 domain (Zender et al. (2002) Cancer Gene Ther. 9(6):489-96); an Drosophila Antennapedia protein transduction domain (Noguchi et al. (2003) Diabetes 52(7):1732-1737); a truncated human calcitonin peptide (Trehin et al. (2004) Pharm.
  • a minimal undecapeptide protein transduction domain corresponding to residues 47-57 of HIV-1 TAT comprising YGRKKRRQRRR; SEQ ID NO:264
  • a polyarginine sequence comprising a number of arginines
  • Exemplary PTDs include but are not limited to, YGRKKRRQRRR (SEQ ID NO:264), RKKRRQRRR (SEQ ID NO:269); an arginine homopolymer of from 3 arginine residues to 50 arginine residues;
  • Exemplary PTD domain amino acid sequences include, but are not limited to, any of the following: YGRKKRRQRRR (SEQ ID NO:264); RKKRRQRR (SEQ ID NO:270); YARAAARQARA (SEQ ID NO:271); THRLPRRRRRR (SEQ ID NO:272); and GGRRARRRRRR (SEQ ID NO:273).
  • the PTD is an activatable CPP (ACPP) (Aguilera et al. (2009) Integr Biol ( Camb ) June; 1(5-6): 371-381).
  • ACPPs comprise a polycationic CPP (e.g., Arg9 or “R9”) connected via a cleavable linker to a matching polyanion (e.g., Glu9 or “E9”), which reduces the net charge to nearly zero and thereby inhibits adhesion and uptake into cells.
  • a polyanion e.g., Glu9 or “E9”
  • a suitable DNA-targeting RNA comprises two separate RNA polynucleotide molecules.
  • the first of the two separate RNA polynucleotide molecules comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% nucleotide sequence identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562, or complements thereof.
  • the second of the two separate RNA polynucleotide molecules comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% nucleotide sequence identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:563-679, or complements thereof.
  • a suitable DNA-targeting RNA is a single RNA polynucleotide and comprises a first nucleotide sequence having at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% nucleotide sequence identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562 and a second nucleotide sequence having at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% nucleotide sequence identity over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides to any one of the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs
  • the DNA-targeting RNA is a double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA and the targeter-RNA comprises the sequence 5′GUUUUAGAGCUA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:679) linked at its 5′ end to a stretch of nucleotides that are complementary to a target DNA.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA is a double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA and the activator-RNA comprises the sequence 5′ UAGCAAGUUAAAAUAAGGCUAGUCCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO://).
  • the DNA-targeting RNA is a single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA and comprises the sequence 5′-GUUUUAGAGCUA-linker-UAGCAAGUUAAAAUAAGGCUAGUCCG-3′ linked at its 5′ end to a stretch of nucleotides that are complementary to a target DNA (where “linker” denotes any a linker nucleotide sequence that can comprise any nucleotide sequence) (SEQ ID NO://).
  • Other exemplary single-molecule DNA-targeting RNAs include those set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 680-682.
  • a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a subject DNA-targeting RNA and/or a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA-encoding nucleic acid is an expression vector, e.g., a recombinant expression vector.
  • a subject method involves contacting a target DNA or introducing into a cell (or a population of cells) one or more nucleic acids comprising nucleotide sequences encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a cell comprising a target DNA is in vitro.
  • a cell comprising a target DNA is in vivo.
  • Suitable nucleic acids comprising nucleotide sequences encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide include expression vectors, where an expression vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide is a “recombinant expression vector.”
  • the recombinant expression vector is a viral construct, e.g., a recombinant adeno-associated virus construct (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,078,387), a recombinant adenoviral construct, a recombinant lentiviral construct, a recombinant retroviral construct, etc.
  • a viral construct e.g., a recombinant adeno-associated virus construct (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,078,387), a recombinant adenoviral construct, a recombinant lentiviral construct, a recombinant retroviral construct, etc.
  • Suitable expression vectors include, but are not limited to, viral vectors (e.g. viral vectors based on vaccinia virus; poliovirus; adenovirus (see, e.g., Li et al., Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 35:2543 2549, 1994; Borras et al., Gene Ther 6:515 524, 1999; Li and Davidson, PNAS 92:7700 7704, 1995; Sakamoto et al., H Gene Ther 5:1088 1097, 1999; WO 94/12649, WO 93/03769; WO 93/19191; WO 94/28938; WO 95/11984 and WO 95/00655); adeno-associated virus (see, e.g., Ali et al., Hum Gene Ther 9:81 86, 1998, Flannery et al., PNAS 94:6916 6921, 1997; Bennett et al., Invest Opthalmol Vis
  • SV40 herpes simplex virus
  • human immunodeficiency virus see, e.g., Miyoshi et al., PNAS 94:10319 23, 1997; Takahashi et al., J Virol 73:7812 7816, 1999
  • a retroviral vector e.g., Murine Leukemia Virus, spleen necrosis virus, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous Sarcoma Virus, Harvey Sarcoma Virus, avian leukosis virus, a lentivirus, human immunodeficiency virus, myeloproliferative sarcoma virus, and mammary tumor virus
  • retroviral vector e.g., Murine Leukemia Virus, spleen necrosis virus, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous Sarcoma Virus, Harvey Sarcoma Virus, avian leukosis virus, a lentivirus, human immunodeficiency virus, myelop
  • Suitable expression vectors are known to those of skill in the art, and many are commercially available.
  • the following vectors are provided by way of example; for eukaryotic host cells: pXT1, pSG5 (Stratagene), pSVK3, pBPV, pMSG, and pSVLSV40 (Pharmacia).
  • any other vector may be used so long as it is compatible with the host cell.
  • any of a number of suitable transcription and translation control elements including constitutive and inducible promoters, transcription enhancer elements, transcription terminators, etc. may be used in the expression vector (see e.g., Bitter et al. (1987) Methods in Enzymology, 153:516-544).
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to a control element, e.g., a transcriptional control element, such as a promoter.
  • a control element e.g., a transcriptional control element, such as a promoter.
  • the transcriptional control element may be functional in either a eukaryotic cell, e.g., a mammalian cell; or a prokaryotic cell (e.g., bacterial or archaeal cell).
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to multiple control elements that allow expression of the nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
  • eukaryotic promoters include those from cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate early, herpes simplex virus (HSV) thymidine kinase, early and late SV40, long terminal repeats (LTRs) from retrovirus, and mouse metallothionein-I. Selection of the appropriate vector and promoter is well within the level of ordinary skill in the art.
  • the expression vector may also contain a ribosome binding site for translation initiation and a transcription terminator.
  • the expression vector may also include appropriate sequences for amplifying expression.
  • the expression vector may also include nucleotide sequences encoding protein tags (e.g., 6 ⁇ His tag, hemagglutinin tag, green fluorescent protein, etc.) that are fused to the site-directed modifying polypeptide, thus resulting in a chimeric polypeptide.
  • protein tags e.g., 6 ⁇ His tag, hemagglutinin tag, green fluorescent protein, etc.
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to an inducible promoter. In some embodiments, a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to a constitutive promoter.
  • nucleic acid e.g., an expression construct
  • Suitable methods include e.g., viral or bacteriophage infection, transfection, conjugation, protoplast fusion, lipofection, electroporation, calcium phosphate precipitation, polyethyleneimine (PEI)-mediated transfection, DEAE-dextran mediated transfection, liposome-mediated transfection, particle gun technology, calcium phosphate precipitation, direct micro injection, nanoparticle-mediated nucleic acid delivery (see, e.g., Panyam et., al Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2012 Sep. 13. pii: S0169-409X(12)00283-9. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.09.023), and the like.
  • PKI polyethyleneimine
  • the present disclosure provides a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide interacts with (e.g., binds to) a subject DNA-targeting RNA (described above).
  • the DNA-targeting RNA guides the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide to a target sequence within target DNA (e.g. a chromosomal sequence or an extrachromosomal sequence, e.g. an episomal sequence, a minicircle sequence, a mitochondrial sequence, a chloroplast sequence, etc.).
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide modifies target DNA (e.g., cleavage or methylation of target DNA) and/or a polypeptide associated with target DNA (e.g., methylation or acetylation of a histone tail).
  • target DNA e.g., cleavage or methylation of target DNA
  • a polypeptide associated with target DNA e.g., methylation or acetylation of a histone tail
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide modifies target DNA (e.g., cleavage or methylation of target DNA) and/or a polypeptide associated with target DNA (e.g., methylation or acetylation of a histone tail).
  • target DNA e.g., cleavage or methylation of target DNA
  • polypeptide associated with target DNA e.g., methylation or acetylation of a histone tail.
  • a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is also referred to herein as a “chimeric site-directed polypeptide” or a “chimeric RNA binding site-directed modifying polypeptide.”
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises two portions, an RNA-binding portion and an activity portion.
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises amino acid sequences that are derived from at least two different polypeptides.
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide can comprise modified and/or naturally-occurring polypeptide sequences (e.g., a first amino acid sequence from a modified or unmodified Cas9/Csn1 protein; and a second amino acid sequence other than the Cas9/Csn1 protein).
  • the RNA-binding portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is a naturally-occurring polypeptide. In other cases, the RNA-binding portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is not a naturally-occurring molecule (modified, e.g., mutation, deletion, insertion).
  • Naturally-occurring RNA-binding portions of interest are derived from site-directed modifying polypeptides known in the art. For example, SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346 provide a non-limiting and non-exhaustive list of naturally occurring Cas9/Csn1 endonucleases that can be used as site-directed modifying polypeptides.
  • the RNA-binding portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100%, amino acid sequence identity to the RNA-binding portion of a polypeptide having any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346).
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, or 100%, amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an “activity portion.”
  • the activity portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises the naturally-occurring activity portion of a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., Cas9/Csn1 endonuclease).
  • the activity portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises a modified amino acid sequence (e.g., substitution, deletion, insertion) of a naturally-occurring activity portion of a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • Naturally-occurring activity portions of interest are derived from site-directed modifying polypeptides known in the art.
  • SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346 provide a non-limiting and non-exhaustive list of naturally occurring Cas9/Csn1 endonucleases that can be used as site-directed modifying polypeptides.
  • the activity portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is variable and may comprise any heterologous polypeptide sequence that may be useful in the methods disclosed herein.
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (i) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (ii) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity (e.g., activity for DNA methylation, activity for DNA cleavage, activity for histone acetylation, activity for histone methylation, etc.), wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • site-directed enzymatic activity e.g., activity for DNA methylation, activity for DNA cleavage, activity for histone acetylation, activity for histone methylation, etc.
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (i) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (ii) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA (e.g., to increase or decrease transcription), wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the activity portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide has enzymatic activity that modifies target DNA (e.g., nuclease activity, methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, DNA repair activity, DNA damage activity, deamination activity, dismutase activity, alkylation activity, depurination activity, oxidation activity, pyrimidine dimer forming activity, integrase activity, transposase activity, recombinase activity, polymerase activity, ligase activity, helicase activity, photolyase activity or glycosylase activity).
  • target DNA e.g., nuclease activity, methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, DNA repair activity, DNA damage activity, deamination activity, dismutase activity, alkylation activity, depurination activity, oxidation activity, pyrimidine dimer forming activity, integrase activity, transposase activity, recombina
  • the activity portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide has enzymatic activity (e.g., methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity, deubiquitinating activity, adenylation activity, deadenylation activity, SUMOylating activity, deSUMOylating activity, ribosylation activity, deribosylation activity, myristoylation activity or demyristoylation activity) that modifies a polypeptide associated with target DNA (e.g., a histone).
  • enzymatic activity e.g., methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity, deubiquitinating
  • the activity portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide exhibits enzymatic activity (described above). In other cases, the activity portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide modulates transcription of the target DNA (described above).
  • the activity portion of a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is variable and may comprise any heterologous polypeptide sequence that may be useful in the methods disclosed herein.
  • the activity portion of the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises a modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 protein.
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 protein comprises an amino acid change (e.g., deletion, insertion, or substitution) that reduces the naturally-occurring nuclease activity of the Cas9/Csn1 protein.
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 protein has less than 50%, less than 40%, less than 30%, less than 20%, less than 10%, less than 5%, or less than 1% of the nuclease activity of the corresponding wild-type Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide.
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide has no substantial nuclease activity.
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide is a D10A (aspartate to alanine at amino acid position 10 of SEQ ID NO:8) mutation (or the corresponding mutation of any of the proteins presented in SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346) that can cleave the complementary strand of the target DNA but has reduced ability to cleave the non-complementary strand of the target DNA (see FIG. 11 ).
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide is a H840A (histidine to alanine at amino acid position 840) mutation (or the corresponding mutation of any of the proteins set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346) that can cleave the non-complementary strand of the target DNA but has reduced ability to cleave the complementary strand of the target DNA (see FIG. 11 ).
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide harbors both the D10A and the H840A mutations (or the corresponding mutations of any of the proteins set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346) such that the polypeptide has a reduced ability to cleave both the complementary and the non-complementary strands of the target DNA.
  • Other residues can be mutated to achieve the above effects (i.e. inactivate one or the other nuclease portions).
  • residues D10, G12, G17, E762, H840, N854, N863, H982, H983, A984, D986, and/or A987 can be altered (i.e., substituted) (see FIG. 3 , FIG. 5 , FIG. 11A , and Table 1 for more information regarding the conservation of Cas9 amino acid residues). Also, mutations other than alanine substitutions are suitable. For more information of important
  • Table 1 lists 4 motifs that are present in Cas9 sequences from various species (see also FIG. 3 and FIG. 5). The amino acids listed here are from the Cas9 from S. pyogenes (SEQ ID NO: 8). Motif # Motif Amino acids (residue #s) Highly conserved 1 RuvC-like I IGLDIGTNSVGWAVI (7-21) D10, G12, G17 (SEQ ID NO: 260) 2 RuvC-like II IVIEMARE (759-766) E762 (SEQ ID NO: 261) 3 HNH-motif DVDHIVPQSFLKDDSIDNKVLTRSDKN H840, N854, N863 (837-863)(SEQ ID NO: 262) 4 RuvC-like II HHAHDAYL (982-989) H982, H983, A984, (SEQ ID NO: 263) D986, A987
  • the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99% or 100% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises 4 motifs (as listed in Table 4 and depicted in FIG. 3A and FIG.
  • the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises amino acid sequences having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99% or 100% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the activity portion of the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises a heterologous polypeptide that has DNA-modifying activity and/or transcription factor activity and/or DNA-associated polypeptide-modifying activity.
  • a heterologous polypeptide replaces a portion of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide that provides nuclease activity.
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises both a portion of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide that normally provides nuclease activity (and that portion can be fully active or can instead be modified to have less than 100% of the corresponding wild-type activity) and a heterologous polypeptide.
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is a fusion polypeptide comprising both the portion of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide that normally provides nuclease activity and the heterologous polypeptide.
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is a fusion polypeptide comprising a modified variant of the activity portion of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide (e.g., amino acid change, deletion, insertion) and a heterologous polypeptide.
  • a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is a fusion polypeptide comprising a heterologous polypeptide and the RNA-binding portion of a naturally-occurring or a modified site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a naturally-occurring (or modified, e.g., mutation, deletion, insertion) bacterial Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide may be fused to a heterologous polypeptide sequence (i.e. a polypeptide sequence from a protein other than Cas9/Csn1 or a polypeptide sequence from another organism).
  • the heterologous polypeptide sequence may exhibit an activity (e.g., enzymatic activity) that will also be exhibited by the chimeric Cas9/Csn1 protein (e.g., methyltransferase activity, acetyltransferase activity, kinase activity, ubiquitinating activity, etc.).
  • a heterologous nucleic acid sequence may be linked to another nucleic acid sequence (e.g., by genetic engineering) to generate a chimeric nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric polypeptide.
  • a chimeric Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide is generated by fusing a Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide (e.g., wild type Cas9 or a Cas9 variant, e.g., a Cas9 with reduced or inactivated nuclease activity) with a heterologous sequence that provides for subcellular localization (e.g., a nuclear localization signal (NLS) for targeting to the nucleus; a mitochondrial localization signal for targeting to the mitochondria; a chloroplast localization signal for targeting to a chloroplast; an ER retention signal; and the like).
  • a nuclear localization signal NLS
  • the heterologous sequence can provide a tag for ease of tracking or purification (e.g., a fluorescent protein, e.g., green fluorescent protein (GFP), YFP, RFP, CFP, mCherry, tdTomato, and the like; a HIS tag, e.g., a 6 ⁇ His tag; a hemagglutinin (HA) tag; a FLAG tag; a Myc tag; and the like).
  • GFP green fluorescent protein
  • RFP red fluorescent protein
  • CFP CFP
  • mCherry mCherry
  • tdTomato e.g., a fluorescent protein
  • HIS tag e.g., a 6 ⁇ His tag
  • HA hemagglutinin
  • FLAG tag e.g., hemagglutinin
  • Myc tag e.g., Myc tag
  • the heterologous sequence can provide a binding domain (e.g., to provide the ability of a chimeric Cas9 polypeptide to bind to another protein of interest, e.g., a DNA or histone modifying protein, a transcription factor or transcription repressor, a recruiting protein, etc.).
  • a binding domain e.g., to provide the ability of a chimeric Cas9 polypeptide to bind to another protein of interest, e.g., a DNA or histone modifying protein, a transcription factor or transcription repressor, a recruiting protein, etc.
  • Examples of various additional suitable fusion partners (or fragments thereof) for a subject variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide include, but are not limited to those listed in FIG. 54 .
  • nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is an expression vector, e.g., a recombinant expression vector.
  • a subject method involves contacting a target DNA or introducing into a cell (or a population of cells) one or more nucleic acids comprising a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • Suitable nucleic acids comprising nucleotide sequences encoding a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide include expression vectors, where an expression vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is a “recombinant expression vector.”
  • the recombinant expression vector is a viral construct, e.g., a recombinant adeno-associated virus construct (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,078,387), a recombinant adenoviral construct, a recombinant lentiviral construct, etc.
  • a viral construct e.g., a recombinant adeno-associated virus construct (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,078,387), a recombinant adenoviral construct, a recombinant lentiviral construct, etc.
  • Suitable expression vectors include, but are not limited to, viral vectors (e.g. viral vectors based on vaccinia virus; poliovirus; adenovirus (see, e.g., Li et al., Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 35:2543 2549, 1994; Borras et al., Gene Ther 6:515 524, 1999; Li and Davidson, PNAS 92:7700 7704, 1995; Sakamoto et al., H Gene Ther 5:1088 1097, 1999; WO 94/12649, WO 93/03769; WO 93/19191; WO 94/28938; WO 95/11984 and WO 95/00655); adeno-associated virus (see, e.g., Ali et al., Hum Gene Ther 9:81 86, 1998, Flannery et al., PNAS 94:6916 6921, 1997; Bennett et al., Invest Opthalmol Vis
  • SV40 herpes simplex virus
  • human immunodeficiency virus see, e.g., Miyoshi et al., PNAS 94:10319 23, 1997; Takahashi et al., J Virol 73:7812 7816, 1999
  • a retroviral vector e.g., Murine Leukemia Virus, spleen necrosis virus, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous Sarcoma Virus, Harvey Sarcoma Virus, avian leukosis virus, a lentivirus, human immunodeficiency virus, myeloproliferative sarcoma virus, and mammary tumor virus
  • retroviral vector e.g., Murine Leukemia Virus, spleen necrosis virus, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous Sarcoma Virus, Harvey Sarcoma Virus, avian leukosis virus, a lentivirus, human immunodeficiency virus, myelop
  • Suitable expression vectors are known to those of skill in the art, and many are commercially available.
  • the following vectors are provided by way of example; for eukaryotic host cells: pXT1, pSG5 (Stratagene), pSVK3, pBPV, pMSG, and pSVLSV40 (Pharmacia).
  • any other vector may be used so long as it is compatible with the host cell.
  • any of a number of suitable transcription and translation control elements including constitutive and inducible promoters, transcription enhancer elements, transcription terminators, etc. may be used in the expression vector (see e.g., Bitter et al. (1987) Methods in Enzymology, 153:516-544).
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to a control element, e.g., a transcriptional control element, such as a promoter.
  • a control element e.g., a transcriptional control element, such as a promoter.
  • the transcriptional control element may be functional in either a eukaryotic cell, e.g., a mammalian cell; or a prokaryotic cell (e.g., bacterial or archaeal cell).
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to multiple control elements that allow expression of the nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
  • eukaryotic promoters include those from cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate early, herpes simplex virus (HSV) thymidine kinase, early and late SV40, long terminal repeats (LTRs) from retrovirus, and mouse metallothionein-I. Selection of the appropriate vector and promoter is well within the level of ordinary skill in the art.
  • the expression vector may also contain a ribosome binding site for translation initiation and a transcription terminator.
  • the expression vector may also include appropriate sequences for amplifying expression.
  • the expression vector may also include nucleotide sequences encoding protein tags (e.g., 6 ⁇ His tag, hemagglutinin (HA) tag, a fluorescent protein (e.g., a green fluorescent protein; a yellow fluorescent protein, etc.), etc.) that are fused to the chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • protein tags e.g., 6 ⁇ His tag, hemagglutinin (HA) tag, a fluorescent protein (e.g., a green fluorescent protein; a yellow fluorescent protein, etc.
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to an inducible promoter (e.g., heat shock promoter, Tetracycline-regulated promoter, Steroid-regulated promoter, Metal-regulated promoter, estrogen receptor-regulated promoter, etc.).
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to a spatially restricted and/or temporally restricted promoter (e.g., a tissue specific promoter, a cell type specific promoter, etc.).
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to a constitutive promoter.
  • nucleic acid e.g., an expression construct
  • Suitable methods include, include e.g., viral or bacteriophage infection, transfection, conjugation, protoplast fusion, lipofection, electroporation, calcium phosphate precipitation, polyethyleneimine (PEI)-mediated transfection, DEAE-dextran mediated transfection, liposome-mediated transfection, particle gun technology, calcium phosphate precipitation, direct micro injection, nanoparticle-mediated nucleic acid delivery (see, e.g., Panyam et., al Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2012 Sep. 13. pii: S0169-409X(12)00283-9. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.09.023), and the like.
  • PKI polyethyleneimine
  • a subject method involves contacting a target DNA with a complex (a “targeting complex”), which complex comprises a DNA-targeting RNA and a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA and a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide form a complex.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA provides target specificity to the complex by comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence of a target DNA.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide of the complex provides the site-specific activity.
  • a subject complex modifies a target DNA, leading to, for example, DNA cleavage, DNA methylation, DNA damage, DNA repair, etc.
  • a subject complex modifies a target polypeptide associated with target DNA (e.g., a histone, a DNA-binding protein, etc.), leading to, for example, histone methylation, histone acetylation, histone ubiquitination, and the like.
  • target DNA e.g., a histone, a DNA-binding protein, etc.
  • the target DNA may be, for example, naked DNA in vitro, chromosomal DNA in cells in vitro, chromosomal DNA in cells in vivo, etc.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide exhibits nuclease activity that cleaves target DNA at a target DNA sequence defined by the region of complementarity between the DNA-targeting RNA and the target DNA.
  • site-directed modifying polypeptide is a Cas9 or Cas9 related polypeptide
  • site-specific cleavage of the target DNA occurs at locations determined by both (i) base-pairing complementarity between the DNA-targeting RNA and the target DNA; and (ii) a short motif [referred to as the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM)] in the target DNA.
  • PAM protospacer adjacent motif
  • the PAM sequence of the non-complementary strand is 5′-XGG-3′, where X is any DNA nucleotide and X is immediately 3′ of the target sequence of the non-complementary strand of the target DNA (see FIG. 10 ).
  • the PAM sequence of the complementary strand is 5′-CCY-3′, where Y is any DNA nucleotide and Y is immediately 5′ of the target sequence of the complementary strand of the target DNA (see FIG.
  • Cas9 proteins may be advantageous to use in the various provided methods in order to capitalize on various enzymatic characteristics of the different Cas9 proteins (e.g., for different PAM sequence preferences; for increased or decreased enzymatic activity; for an increased or decreased level of cellular toxicity; to change the balance between NHEJ, homology-directed repair, single strand breaks, double strand breaks, etc.).
  • Cas9 proteins from various species may require different PAM sequences in the target DNA.
  • the PAM sequence requirement may be different than the 5′-XGG-3′ sequence described above.
  • Cas9 orthologus from a wide variety of species have been identified herein and the proteins share only a few identical amino acids. All identified Cas9 orthologs have the same domain architecture with a central HNH endonuclease domain and a split RuvC/RNaseH domain (See FIGS. 3A , 3 B, FIG. 5 , and Table 1). Cas9 proteins share 4 key motifs with a conserved architecture. Motifs 1, 2, and 4 are RuvC like motifs while motif 3 is an HNH-motif.
  • a suitable site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having 4 motifs, each of motifs 1-4 having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99% or 100% amino acid sequence identity to the motifs 1-4 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3A (SEQ ID NOs:260-263, respectively, as depicted in Table 1), or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346 (see FIG. 5 for an alignment of motifs 1-4 from divergent Cas9 sequences).
  • a suitable site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99% or 100% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • Any Cas9 protein as defined above can be used as a site-directed modifying polypeptide or as part of a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide of the subject methods.
  • the nuclease activity cleaves target DNA to produce double strand breaks. These breaks are then repaired by the cell in one of two ways: non-homologous end joining, and homology-directed repair ( FIG. 2 ).
  • non-homologous end joining NHEJ
  • the double-strand breaks are repaired by direct ligation of the break ends to one another. As such, no new nucleic acid material is inserted into the site, although some nucleic acid material may be lost, resulting in a deletion.
  • a donor polynucleotide with homology to the cleaved target DNA sequence is used as a template for repair of the cleaved target DNA sequence, resulting in the transfer of genetic information from the donor polynucleotide to the target DNA.
  • new nucleic acid material may be inserted/copied into the site.
  • a target DNA is contacted with a subject donor polynucleotide.
  • a subject donor polynucleotide is introduced into a subject cell.
  • the modifications of the target DNA due to NHEJ and/or homology-directed repair lead to, for example, gene correction, gene replacement, gene tagging, transgene insertion, nucleotide deletion, gene disruption, gene mutation, etc.
  • cleavage of DNA by a site-directed modifying polypeptide may be used to delete nucleic acid material from a target DNA sequence (e.g., to disrupt a gene that makes cells susceptible to infection (e.g. the CCR5 or CXCR4 gene, which makes T cells susceptible to HIV infection), to remove disease-causing trinucleotide repeat sequences in neurons, to create gene knockouts and mutations as disease models in research, etc.) by cleaving the target DNA sequence and allowing the cell to repair the sequence in the absence of an exogenously provided donor polynucleotide.
  • the subject methods can be used to knock out a gene (resulting in complete lack of transcription or altered transcription) or to knock in genetic material into a locus of choice in the target DNA.
  • RNA-targeting RNA and a site-directed modifying polypeptide are coadministered to cells with a donor polynucleotide sequence that includes at least a segment with homology to the target DNA sequence
  • the subject methods may be used to add, i.e. insert or replace, nucleic acid material to a target DNA sequence (e.g.
  • a tag e.g., 6 ⁇ His, a fluorescent protein (e.g., a green fluorescent protein; a yellow fluorescent protein, etc.), hemagglutinin (HA), FLAG, etc.
  • a regulatory sequence e.g. promoter, polyadenylation signal, internal ribosome entry sequence (IRES), 2A peptide, start codon, stop codon, splice signal, localization signal, etc.
  • a nucleic acid sequence e.g., introduce a mutation
  • a complex comprising a DNA-targeting RNA and a site-directed modifying polypeptide is useful in any in vitro or in vivo application in which it is desirable to modify DNA in a site-specific, i.e. “targeted”, way, for example gene knock-out, gene knock-in, gene editing, gene tagging, etc., as used in, for example, gene therapy, e.g. to treat a disease or as an antiviral, antipathogenic, or anticancer therapeutic, the production of genetically modified organisms in agriculture, the large scale production of proteins by cells for therapeutic, diagnostic, or research purposes, the induction of iPS cells, biological research, the targeting of genes of pathogens for deletion or replacement, etc.
  • a site-specific i.e. “targeted”
  • gene therapy e.g. to treat a disease or as an antiviral, antipathogenic, or anticancer therapeutic
  • the production of genetically modified organisms in agriculture the large scale production of proteins by cells for therapeutic, diagnostic, or research purposes
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises a modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 protein.
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 protein comprises an amino acid change (e.g., deletion, insertion, or substitution) that reduces the naturally-occurring nuclease activity of the Cas9/Csn1 protein.
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 protein has less than 50%, less than 40%, less than 30%, less than 20%, less than 10%, less than 5%, or less than 1% of the nuclease activity of the corresponding wild-type Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide.
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide has no substantial nuclease activity.
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide is a modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide that has no substantial nuclease activity, it can be referred to as “dCas9.”
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide is a D10A (aspartate to alanine at amino acid position 10 of SEQ ID NO:8) mutation (or the corresponding mutation of any of the proteins set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346) that can cleave the complementary strand of the target DNA but has reduced ability to cleave the non-complementary strand of the target DNA (thus resulting in a single strand break (SSB) instead of a DSB; see FIG. 11 ).
  • D10A aspartate to alanine at amino acid position 10 of SEQ ID NO:8 mutation
  • SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346 or the corresponding mutation of any of the proteins set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide is a H840A (histidine to alanine at amino acid position 840 of SEQ ID NO:8) mutation (or the corresponding mutation of any of the proteins set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346) that can cleave the non-complementary strand of the target DNA but has reduced ability to cleave the complementary strand of the target DNA (thus resulting in a single strand break (SSB) instead of a DSB; see FIG. 11 ).
  • H840A histidine to alanine at amino acid position 840 of SEQ ID NO:8
  • SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346 mutation that can cleave the non-complementary strand of the target DNA but has reduced ability to cleave the complementary strand of the target DNA (thus resulting in a single strand break (SSB) instead of a DSB; see FIG. 11 ).
  • D10A or H840A variant of Cas9 can alter the expected biological outcome because the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is much more likely to occur when DSBs are present as opposed to SSBs.
  • NHEJ non-homologous end joining
  • a D10A or H840A variant of Cas9 can be used.
  • Other residues can be mutated to achieve the same effect (i.e. inactivate one or the other nuclease portions).
  • residues D10, G12, G17, E762, H840, N854, N863, H982, H983, A984, D986, and/or A987 can be altered (i.e., substituted) (see FIG. 3 , FIG. 5 , FIG. 11A , and Table 1 for more information regarding the conservation of Cas9 amino acid residues). Also, mutations other than alanine substitutions are suitable.
  • a site-directed polypeptide e.g., site-directed modifying polypeptide
  • a Cas9 protein has a D10, G12, G17, E762, H840, N854, N863, H982, H983, A984, D986, and/or a A987 mutation, e.g., D10A, G12A, G17A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A, H982A, H983A, A984A, and/or D986A
  • the polypeptide can still bind to target DNA in a site-specific manner (because it is still guided to a target DNA sequence by a DNA-targeting RNA) as long as it retains the ability to interact with the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the modified form of the Cas9/Csn1 polypeptide harbors both the D10A and the H840A mutations (or the corresponding mutations of any of the proteins set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346) such that the polypeptide has a reduced ability to cleave both the complementary and the non-complementary strands of the target DNA (i.e., the variant can have no substantial nuclease activity).
  • Other residues can be mutated to achieve the same effect (i.e. inactivate one or the other nuclease portions).
  • residues D10, G12, G17, E762, H840, N854, N863, H982, H983, A984, D986, and/or A987 can be altered (i.e., substituted) (see FIG. 3 , FIG. 5 , FIG. 11A , and Table 1 for more information regarding the conservation of Cas9 amino acid residues). Also, mutations other than alanine substitutions are suitable.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises a heterologous sequence (e.g., a fusion).
  • a heterologous sequence can provide for subcellular localization of the site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a nuclear localization signal (NLS) for targeting to the nucleus; a mitochondrial localization signal for targeting to the mitochondria; a chloroplast localization signal for targeting to a chloroplast; a ER retention signal; and the like).
  • NLS nuclear localization signal
  • a heterologous sequence can provide a tag for ease of tracking or purification (e.g., a fluorescent protein, e.g., green fluorescent protein (GFP), YFP, RFP, CFP, mCherry, tdTomato, and the like; a his tag, e.g., a 6 ⁇ His tag; a hemagglutinin (HA) tag; a FLAG tag; a Myc tag; and the like).
  • the heterologous sequence can provide for increased or decreased stability.
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide can be codon-optimized. This type of optimization is known in the art and entails the mutation of foreign-derived DNA to mimic the codon preferences of the intended host organism or cell while encoding the same protein. Thus, the codons are changed, but the encoded protein remains unchanged.
  • a human codon-optimized Cas9 or variant, e.g., enzymatically inactive variant
  • would be a suitable site-directed modifying polypeptide see SEQ ID NO:256 for an example.
  • Any suitable site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., any Cas9 such as any of the sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346
  • any suitable site-directed modifying polypeptide can be codon optimized.
  • the intended host cell were a mouse cell
  • a mouse codon-optimized Cas9 or variant, e.g., enzymatically inactive variant
  • codon optimization is not required, it is acceptable and may be preferable in certain cases.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA and a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide are used as an inducible system for shutting off gene expression in bacterial cells.
  • nucleic acids encoding an appropriate DNA-targeting RNA and/or an appropriate site-directed polypeptide are incorporated into the chromosome of a target cell and are under control of an inducible promoter.
  • the target DNA is cleaved (or otherwise modified) at the location of interest (e.g., a target gene on a separate plasmid), when both the DNA-targeting RNA and the site-directed modifying polypeptide are present and form a complex.
  • bacterial expression strains are engineered to include nucleic acid sequences encoding an appropriate site-directed modifying polypeptide in the bacterial genome and/or an appropriate DNA-targeting RNA on a plasmid (e.g., under control of an inducible promoter), allowing experiments in which the expression of any targeted gene (expressed from a separate plasmid introduced into the strain) could be controlled by inducing expression of the DNA-targeting RNA and the site-directed polypeptide.
  • a plasmid e.g., under control of an inducible promoter
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide has enzymatic activity that modifies target DNA in ways other than introducing double strand breaks.
  • Enzymatic activity of interest that may be used to modify target DNA (e.g., by fusing a heterologous polypeptide with enzymatic activity to a site-directed modifying polypeptide, thereby generating a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide) includes, but is not limited methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, DNA repair activity, DNA damage activity, deamination activity, dismutase activity, alkylation activity, depurination activity, oxidation activity, pyrimidine dimer forming activity, integrase activity, transposase activity, recombinase activity, polymerase activity, ligase activity, helicase activity, photolyase activity or glycosylase activity). Methylation and demethylation is recognized in the art as an important mode of epigenetic gene regulation while DNA damage and repair activity is essential for
  • the methods herein find use in the epigenetic modification of target DNA and may be employed to control epigenetic modification of target DNA at any location in a target DNA by genetically engineering the desired complementary nucleic acid sequence into the DNA-targeting segment of a DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the methods herein also find use in the intentional and controlled damage of DNA at any desired location within the target DNA.
  • the methods herein also find use in the sequence-specific and controlled repair of DNA at any desired location within the target DNA. Methods to target DNA-modifying enzymatic activities to specific locations in target DNA find use in both research and clinical applications.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide has activity that modulates the transcription of target DNA (e.g., in the case of a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide, etc.).
  • a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptides comprising a heterologous polypeptide that exhibits the ability to increase or decrease transcription (e.g., transcriptional activator or transcription repressor polypeptides) is used to increase or decrease the transcription of target DNA at a specific location in a target DNA, which is guided by the DNA-targeting segment of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • source polypeptides for providing a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide with transcription modulatory activity include, but are not limited to light-inducible transcription regulators, small molecule/drug-responsive transcription regulators, transcription factors, transcription repressors, etc.
  • the subject method is used to control the expression of a targeted coding-RNA (protein-encoding gene) and/or a targeted non-coding RNA (e.g., tRNA, rRNA, snoRNA, siRNA, miRNA, long ncRNA, etc.).
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide has enzymatic activity that modifies a polypeptide associated with DNA (e.g. histone).
  • the enzymatic activity is methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity (i.e., ubiquitination activity), deubiquitinating activity, adenylation activity, deadenylation activity, SUMOylating activity, deSUMOylating activity, ribosylation activity, deribosylation activity, myristoylation activity, demyristoylation activity glycosylation activity (e.g., from O-GlcNAc transferase) or deglycosylation activity.
  • the enzymatic activities listed herein catalyze covalent modifications to proteins. Such modifications are known in the art to alter the stability or activity of the target protein (e.g., phosphorylation due to kinase activity can stimulate or silence protein activity depending on the target protein). Of particular interest as protein targets are histones. Histone proteins are known in the art to bind DNA and form complexes known as nucleosomes. Histones can be modified (e.g., by methylation, acetylation, ubuitination, phosphorylation) to elicit structural changes in the surrounding DNA, thus controlling the accessibility of potentially large portions of DNA to interacting factors such as transcription factors, polymerases and the like.
  • a single histone can be modified in many different ways and in many different combinations (e.g., trimethylation of lysine 27 of histone 3, H3K27, is associated with DNA regions of repressed transcription while trimethylation of lysine 4 of histone 3, H3K4, is associated with DNA regions of active transcription).
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide with histone-modifying activity finds use in the site specific control of DNA structure and can be used to alter the histone modification pattern in a selected region of target DNA. Such methods find use in both research and clinical applications.
  • multiple DNA-targeting RNAs are used simultaneously to simultaneously modify different locations on the same target DNA or on different target DNAs.
  • two or more DNA-targeting RNAs target the same gene or transcript or locus.
  • two or more DNA-targeting RNAs target different unrelated loci.
  • two or more DNA-targeting RNAs target different, but related loci.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide is provided directly as a protein.
  • fungi e.g., yeast
  • spheroplast transformation see Kawai et al., Bioeng Bugs. 2010 November-December; 1(6):395-403: “Transformation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other fungi: methods and possible underlying mechanism”; and Tanka et al., Nature. 2004 Mar. 18; 428(6980):323-8: “Conformational variations in an infectious protein determine prion strain differences”; both of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety).
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., Cas9
  • a spheroplast with or without nucleic acid encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and with or without a donor polynucleotide
  • the spheroplast can be used to introduce the content into a yeast cell.
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide can be introduced into a cell (provided to the cell) by any convenient method; such methods are known to those of ordinary skill in the art.
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide can be injected directly into a cell (e.g., with or without nucleic acid encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and with or without a donor polynucleotide), e.g., a cell of a zebrafish embryo, the pronucleus of a fertilized mouse oocyte, etc.
  • a cell e.g., with or without nucleic acid encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and with or without a donor polynucleotide
  • a cell of a zebrafish embryo e.g., a cell of a zebrafish embryo, the pronucleus of a fertilized mouse oocyte, etc.
  • the subject methods may be employed to induce DNA cleavage, DNA modification, and/or transcriptional modulation in mitotic or post-mitotic cells in vivo and/or ex vivo and/or in vitro (e.g., to produce genetically modified cells that can be reintroduced into an individual).
  • a mitotic and/or post-mitotic cell of interest in the disclosed methods may include a cell from any organism (e.g.
  • a bacterial cell e.g., a bacterial cell, an archaeal cell, a cell of a single-cell eukaryotic organism, a plant cell, an algal cell, e.g., Botryococcus braunii, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Nannochloropsis gaditana, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Sargassum patens C. Agardh , and the like, a fungal cell (e.g., a yeast cell), an animal cell, a cell from an invertebrate animal (e.g.
  • fruit fly cnidarian, echinoderm, nematode, etc.
  • a cell from a vertebrate animal e.g., fish, amphibian, reptile, bird, mammal
  • a cell from a mammal e.g., a cell from a rodent, a cell from a human, etc.
  • a stem cell e.g. an embryonic stem (ES) cell, an induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell, a germ cell; a somatic cell, e.g. a fibroblast, a hematopoietic cell, a neuron, a muscle cell, a bone cell, a hepatocyte, a pancreatic cell; an in vitro or in vivo embryonic cell of an embryo at any stage, e.g., a 1-cell, 2-cell, 4-cell, 8-cell, etc. stage zebrafish embryo; etc.).
  • ES embryonic stem
  • iPS induced pluripotent stem
  • a germ cell e.g. a somatic cell, e.g. a fibroblast, a hematopoietic cell, a neuron, a muscle cell, a bone cell, a hepatocyte, a pancreatic cell
  • an in vitro or in vivo embryonic cell of an embryo at any stage e
  • Cells may be from established cell lines or they may be primary cells, where “primary cells”, “primary cell lines”, and “primary cultures” are used interchangeably herein to refer to cells and cells cultures that have been derived from a subject and allowed to grow in vitro for a limited number of passages, i.e. splittings, of the culture.
  • primary cultures are cultures that may have been passaged 0 times, 1 time, 2 times, 4 times, 5 times, 10 times, or 15 times, but not enough times go through the crisis stage.
  • the primary cell lines of the present invention are maintained for fewer than 10 passages in vitro.
  • Target cells are in many embodiments unicellular organisms, or are grown in culture.
  • the cells may be harvest from an individual by any convenient method.
  • leukocytes may be conveniently harvested by apheresis, leukocytapheresis, density gradient separation, etc., while cells from tissues such as skin, muscle, bone marrow, spleen, liver, pancreas, lung, intestine, stomach, etc. are most conveniently harvested by biopsy.
  • An appropriate solution may be used for dispersion or suspension of the harvested cells.
  • Such solution will generally be a balanced salt solution, e.g.
  • fetal calf serum or other naturally occurring factors in conjunction with an acceptable buffer at low concentration, generally from 5-25 mM.
  • Convenient buffers include HEPES, phosphate buffers, lactate buffers, etc.
  • the cells may be used immediately, or they may be stored, frozen, for long periods of time, being thawed and capable of being reused.
  • the cells will usually be frozen in 10% DMSO, 50% serum, 40% buffered medium, or some other such solution as is commonly used in the art to preserve cells at such freezing temperatures, and thawed in a manner as commonly known in the art for thawing frozen cultured cells.
  • a subject method involves contacting a target DNA or introducing into a cell (or a population of cells) one or more nucleic acids comprising nucleotide sequences encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a donor polynucleotide.
  • Suitable nucleic acids comprising nucleotide sequences encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide include expression vectors, where an expression vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide is a “recombinant expression vector.”
  • the recombinant expression vector is a viral construct, e.g., a recombinant adeno-associated virus construct (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,078,387), a recombinant adenoviral construct, a recombinant lentiviral construct, etc.
  • a viral construct e.g., a recombinant adeno-associated virus construct (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,078,387), a recombinant adenoviral construct, a recombinant lentiviral construct, etc.
  • Suitable expression vectors include, but are not limited to, viral vectors (e.g. viral vectors based on vaccinia virus; poliovirus; adenovirus (see, e.g., Li et al., Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 35:2543 2549, 1994; Borras et al., Gene Ther 6:515 524, 1999; Li and Davidson, PNAS 92:7700 7704, 1995; Sakamoto et al., H Gene Ther 5:1088 1097, 1999; WO 94/12649, WO 93/03769; WO 93/19191; WO 94/28938; WO 95/11984 and WO 95/00655); adeno-associated virus (see, e.g., Ali et al., Hum Gene Ther 9:81 86, 1998, Flannery et al., PNAS 94:6916 6921, 1997; Bennett et al., Invest Opthalmol Vis
  • SV40 herpes simplex virus
  • human immunodeficiency virus see, e.g., Miyoshi et al., PNAS 94:10319 23, 1997; Takahashi et al., J Virol 73:7812 7816, 1999
  • a retroviral vector e.g., Murine Leukemia Virus, spleen necrosis virus, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous Sarcoma Virus, Harvey Sarcoma Virus, avian leukosis virus, a lentivirus, human immunodeficiency virus, myeloproliferative sarcoma virus, and mammary tumor virus
  • retroviral vector e.g., Murine Leukemia Virus, spleen necrosis virus, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous Sarcoma Virus, Harvey Sarcoma Virus, avian leukosis virus, a lentivirus, human immunodeficiency virus, myelop
  • Suitable expression vectors are known to those of skill in the art, and many are commercially available.
  • the following vectors are provided by way of example; for eukaryotic host cells: pXT1, pSG5 (Stratagene), pSVK3, pBPV, pMSG, and pSVLSV40 (Pharmacia).
  • any other vector may be used so long as it is compatible with the host cell.
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to a control element, e.g., a transcriptional control element, such as a promoter.
  • a control element e.g., a transcriptional control element, such as a promoter.
  • the transcriptional control element may be functional in either a eukaryotic cell, e.g., a mammalian cell, or a prokaryotic cell (e.g., bacterial or archaeal cell).
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to multiple control elements that allow expression of the nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
  • any of a number of suitable transcription and translation control elements including constitutive and inducible promoters, transcription enhancer elements, transcription terminators, etc. may be used in the expression vector (e.g., U6 promoter, H1 promoter, etc.; see above) (see e.g., Bitter et al. (1987) Methods in Enzymology, 153:516-544).
  • a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide can be provided as RNA.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA and/or the RNA encoding the site-directed modifying polypeptide can be produced by direct chemical synthesis or may be transcribed in vitro from a DNA encoding the DNA-targeting RNA. Methods of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template are well known in the art.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA and/or the RNA encoding the site-directed modifying polypeptide will be synthesized in vitro using an RNA polymerase enzyme (e.g., T7 polymerase, T3 polymerase, SP6 polymerase, etc.). Once synthesized, the RNA may directly contact a target DNA or may be introduced into a cell by any of the well-known techniques for introducing nucleic acids into cells (e.g., microinjection, electroporation, transfection, etc).
  • Nucleotides encoding a DNA-targeting RNA (introduced either as DNA or RNA) and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide (introduced as DNA or RNA) and/or a donor polynucleotide may be provided to the cells using well-developed transfection techniques; see, e.g. Angel and Yanik (2010) PLoS ONE 5(7): e11756, and the commercially available TransMessenger® reagents from Qiagen, StemfectTM RNA Transfection Kit from Stemgent, and TransIT®-mRNA Transfection Kit from Mirus Bio LLC. See also Beumer et al. (2008) Efficient gene targeting in Drosophila by direct embryo injection with zinc-finger nucleases.
  • nucleic acids encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a donor polynucleotide may be provided on DNA vectors.
  • Many vectors, e.g. plasmids, cosmids, minicircles, phage, viruses, etc., useful for transferring nucleic acids into target cells are available.
  • the vectors comprising the nucleic acid(s) may be maintained episomally, e.g.
  • plasmids as plasmids, minicircle DNAs, viruses such cytomegalovirus, adenovirus, etc., or they may be integrated into the target cell genome, through homologous recombination or random integration, e.g. retrovirus-derived vectors such as MMLV, HIV-1, ALV, etc.
  • Vectors may be provided directly to the subject cells.
  • the cells are contacted with vectors comprising the nucleic acid encoding DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a donor polynucleotide such that the vectors are taken up by the cells.
  • Methods for contacting cells with nucleic acid vectors that are plasmids including electroporation, calcium chloride transfection, microinjection, and lipofection are well known in the art.
  • the cells are contacted with viral particles comprising the nucleic acid encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a donor polynucleotide.
  • Retroviruses for example, lentiviruses, are particularly suitable to the method of the invention. Commonly used retroviral vectors are “defective”, i.e. unable to produce viral proteins required for productive infection. Rather, replication of the vector requires growth in a packaging cell line. To generate viral particles comprising nucleic acids of interest, the retroviral nucleic acids comprising the nucleic acid are packaged into viral capsids by a packaging cell line.
  • Different packaging cell lines provide a different envelope protein (ecotropic, amphotropic or xenotropic) to be incorporated into the capsid, this envelope protein determining the specificity of the viral particle for the cells (ecotropic for murine and rat; amphotropic for most mammalian cell types including human, dog and mouse; and xenotropic for most mammalian cell types except murine cells).
  • the appropriate packaging cell line may be used to ensure that the cells are targeted by the packaged viral particles.
  • Methods of introducing the retroviral vectors comprising the nucleic acid encoding the reprogramming factors into packaging cell lines and of collecting the viral particles that are generated by the packaging lines are well known in the art. Nucleic acids can also introduced by direct micro-injection (e.g., injection of RNA into a zebrafish embryo).
  • Vectors used for providing the nucleic acids encoding DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a donor polynucleotide to the subject cells will typically comprise suitable promoters for driving the expression, that is, transcriptional activation, of the nucleic acid of interest.
  • the nucleic acid of interest will be operably linked to a promoter. This may include ubiquitously acting promoters, for example, the CMV- ⁇ -actin promoter, or inducible promoters, such as promoters that are active in particular cell populations or that respond to the presence of drugs such as tetracycline.
  • vectors used for providing a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a donor polynucleotide to the subject cells may include nucleic acid sequences that encode for selectable markers in the target cells, so as to identify cells that have taken up the DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a donor polynucleotide.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide may instead be used to contact DNA or introduced into cells as RNA.
  • Methods of introducing RNA into cells are known in the art and may include, for example, direct injection, transfection, or any other method used for the introduction of DNA.
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide may instead be provided to cells as a polypeptide.
  • a polypeptide may optionally be fused to a polypeptide domain that increases solubility of the product.
  • the domain may be linked to the polypeptide through a defined protease cleavage site, e.g. a TEV sequence, which is cleaved by TEV protease.
  • the linker may also include one or more flexible sequences, e.g. from 1 to 10 glycine residues.
  • the cleavage of the fusion protein is performed in a buffer that maintains solubility of the product, e.g.
  • Domains of interest include endosomolytic domains, e.g. influenza HA domain; and other polypeptides that aid in production, e.g. IF2 domain, GST domain, GRPE domain, and the like.
  • the polypeptide may be formulated for improved stability.
  • the peptides may be PEGylated, where the polyethyleneoxy group provides for enhanced lifetime in the blood stream.
  • the subject site-directed modifying polypeptide may be fused to a polypeptide permeant domain to promote uptake by the cell.
  • permeant domains are known in the art and may be used in the non-integrating polypeptides of the present invention, including peptides, peptidomimetics, and non-peptide carriers.
  • a permeant peptide may be derived from the third alpha helix of Drosophila melanogaster transcription factor Antennapaedia, referred to as penetratin, which comprises the amino acid sequence RQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK (SEQ ID NO://).
  • the permeant peptide comprises the HIV-1 tat basic region amino acid sequence, which may include, for example, amino acids 49-57 of naturally-occurring tat protein.
  • Other permeant domains include polyarginine motifs, for example, the region of amino acids 34-56 of HIV-1 rev protein, nona-arginine, octa-arginine, and the like.
  • the nona-arginine (R9) sequence is one of the more efficient PTDs that have been characterized (Wender et al. 2000; Uemura et al. 2002).
  • the site at which the fusion is made may be selected in order to optimize the biological activity, secretion or binding characteristics of the polypeptide. The optimal site will be determined by routine experimentation.
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide may be produced in vitro or by eukaryotic cells or by prokaryotic cells, and it may be further processed by unfolding, e.g. heat denaturation, DTT reduction, etc. and may be further refolded, using methods known in the art.
  • Modifications of interest that do not alter primary sequence include chemical derivatization of polypeptides, e.g., acylation, acetylation, carboxylation, amidation, etc. Also included are modifications of glycosylation, e.g. those made by modifying the glycosylation patterns of a polypeptide during its synthesis and processing or in further processing steps; e.g. by exposing the polypeptide to enzymes which affect glycosylation, such as mammalian glycosylating or deglycosylating enzymes. Also embraced are sequences that have phosphorylated amino acid residues, e.g. phosphotyrosine, phosphoserine, or phosphothreonine.
  • modifications of glycosylation e.g. those made by modifying the glycosylation patterns of a polypeptide during its synthesis and processing or in further processing steps; e.g. by exposing the polypeptide to enzymes which affect glycosylation, such as mammalian glycosylating or
  • DNA-targeting RNAs and site-directed modifying polypeptides that have been modified using ordinary molecular biological techniques and synthetic chemistry so as to improve their resistance to proteolytic degradation, to change the target sequence specificity, to optimize solubility properties, to alter protein activity (e.g., transcription modulatory activity, enzymatic activity, etc) or to render them more suitable as a therapeutic agent.
  • Analogs of such polypeptides include those containing residues other than naturally occurring L-amino acids, e.g. D-amino acids or non-naturally occurring synthetic amino acids. D-amino acids may be substituted for some or all of the amino acid residues.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptides may be prepared by in vitro synthesis, using conventional methods as known in the art.
  • Various commercial synthetic apparatuses are available, for example, automated synthesizers by Applied Biosystems, Inc., Beckman, etc. By using synthesizers, naturally occurring amino acids may be substituted with unnatural amino acids. The particular sequence and the manner of preparation will be determined by convenience, economics, purity required, and the like.
  • cysteines can be used to make thioethers, histidines for linking to a metal ion complex, carboxyl groups for forming amides or esters, amino groups for forming amides, and the like.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptides may also be isolated and purified in accordance with conventional methods of recombinant synthesis.
  • a lysate may be prepared of the expression host and the lysate purified using HPLC, exclusion chromatography, gel electrophoresis, affinity chromatography, or other purification technique.
  • the compositions which are used will comprise at least 20% by weight of the desired product, more usually at least about 75% by weight, preferably at least about 95% by weight, and for therapeutic purposes, usually at least about 99.5% by weight, in relation to contaminants related to the method of preparation of the product and its purification. Usually, the percentages will be based upon total protein.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA and/or the site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or the donor polynucleotide are provided to the cells for about 30 minutes to about 24 hours, e.g., 1 hour, 1.5 hours, 2 hours, 2.5 hours, 3 hours, 3.5 hours 4 hours, 5 hours, 6 hours, 7 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours, 16 hours, 18 hours, 20 hours, or any other period from about 30 minutes to about 24 hours, which may be repeated with a frequency of about every day to about every 4 days, e.g., every 1.5 days, every 2 days, every 3 days, or any other frequency from about every day to about every four days.
  • the agent(s) may be provided to the subject cells one or more times, e.g. one time, twice, three times, or more than three times, and the cells allowed to incubate with the agent(s) for some amount of time following each contacting event e.g. 16-24 hours, after which time the media is replaced with fresh media and the cells are cultured further.
  • the complexes may be provided simultaneously (e.g. as two polypeptides and/or nucleic acids), or delivered simultaneously. Alternatively, they may be provided consecutively, e.g. the targeting complex being provided first, followed by the second targeting complex, etc. or vice versa.
  • an effective amount of the DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide is provided to the target DNA or cells to induce cleavage.
  • An effective amount of the DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide is the amount to induce a 2-fold increase or more in the amount of target modification observed between two homologous sequences relative to a negative control, e.g. a cell contacted with an empty vector or irrelevant polypeptide.
  • an effective amount or dose of the DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide will induce a 2-fold increase, a 3-fold increase, a 4-fold increase or more in the amount of target modification observed at a target DNA region, in some instances a 5-fold increase, a 6-fold increase or more, sometimes a 7-fold or 8-fold increase or more in the amount of recombination observed, e.g. an increase of 10-fold, 50-fold, or 100-fold or more, in some instances, an increase of 200-fold, 500-fold, 700-fold, or 1000-fold or more, e.g. a 5000-fold, or 10,000-fold increase in the amount of recombination observed.
  • the amount of target modification may be measured by any convenient method.
  • a silent reporter construct comprising complementary sequence to the targeting segment (targeting sequence) of the DNA-targeting RNA flanked by repeat sequences that, when recombined, will reconstitute a nucleic acid encoding an active reporter may be cotransfected into the cells, and the amount of reporter protein assessed after contact with the DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide, e.g. 2 hours, 4 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours, 24 hours, 36 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours or more after contact with the DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide.
  • the extent of recombination at a genomic DNA region of interest comprising target DNA sequences may be assessed by PCR or Southern hybridization of the region after contact with a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide, e.g. 2 hours, 4 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours, 24 hours, 36 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours or more after contact with the DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide.
  • a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide may occur in any culture media and under any culture conditions that promote the survival of the cells.
  • cells may be suspended in any appropriate nutrient medium that is convenient, such as Iscove's modified DMEM or RPMI 1640, supplemented with fetal calf serum or heat inactivated goat serum (about 5-10%), L-glutamine, a thiol, particularly 2-mercaptoethanol, and antibiotics, e.g. penicillin and streptomycin.
  • the culture may contain growth factors to which the cells are responsive.
  • Growth factors are molecules capable of promoting survival, growth and/or differentiation of cells, either in culture or in the intact tissue, through specific effects on a transmembrane receptor. Growth factors include polypeptides and non-polypeptide factors. Conditions that promote the survival of cells are typically permissive of nonhomologous end joining and homology-directed repair.
  • a polynucleotide comprising a donor sequence to be inserted is also provided to the cell.
  • a “donor sequence” or “donor polynucleotide” it is meant a nucleic acid sequence to be inserted at the cleavage site induced by a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the donor polynucleotide will contain sufficient homology to a genomic sequence at the cleavage site, e.g. 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% homology with the nucleotide sequences flanking the cleavage site, e.g.
  • Donor sequences can be of any length, e.g.
  • nucleotides or more 10 nucleotides or more, 50 nucleotides or more, 100 nucleotides or more, 250 nucleotides or more, 500 nucleotides or more, 1000 nucleotides or more, 5000 nucleotides or more, etc.
  • the donor sequence is typically not identical to the genomic sequence that it replaces. Rather, the donor sequence may contain at least one or more single base changes, insertions, deletions, inversions or rearrangements with respect to the genomic sequence, so long as sufficient homology is present to support homology-directed repair.
  • the donor sequence comprises a non-homologous sequence flanked by two regions of homology, such that homology-directed repair between the target DNA region and the two flanking sequences results in insertion of the non-homologous sequence at the target region.
  • Donor sequences may also comprise a vector backbone containing sequences that are not homologous to the DNA region of interest and that are not intended for insertion into the DNA region of interest.
  • the homologous region(s) of a donor sequence will have at least 50% sequence identity to a genomic sequence with which recombination is desired. In certain embodiments, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99%, or 99.9% sequence identity is present. Any value between 1% and 100% sequence identity can be present, depending upon the length of the donor polynucleotide.
  • the donor sequence may comprise certain sequence differences as compared to the genomic sequence, e.g. restriction sites, nucleotide polymorphisms, selectable markers (e.g., drug resistance genes, fluorescent proteins, enzymes etc.), etc., which may be used to assess for successful insertion of the donor sequence at the cleavage site or in some cases may be used for other purposes (e.g., to signify expression at the targeted genomic locus).
  • selectable markers e.g., drug resistance genes, fluorescent proteins, enzymes etc.
  • sequence differences may include flanking recombination sequences such as FLPs, loxP sequences, or the like, that can be activated at a later time for removal of the marker sequence.
  • the donor sequence may be provided to the cell as single-stranded DNA, single-stranded RNA, double-stranded DNA, or double-stranded RNA. It may be introduced into a cell in linear or circular form. If introduced in linear form, the ends of the donor sequence may be protected (e.g., from exonucleolytic degradation) by methods known to those of skill in the art. For example, one or more dideoxynucleotide residues are added to the 3′ terminus of a linear molecule and/or self-complementary oligonucleotides are ligated to one or both ends. See, for example, Chang et al. (1987) Proc. Natl.
  • Additional methods for protecting exogenous polynucleotides from degradation include, but are not limited to, addition of terminal amino group(s) and the use of modified internucleotide linkages such as, for example, phosphorothioates, phosphoramidates, and O-methyl ribose or deoxyribose residues.
  • additional lengths of sequence may be included outside of the regions of homology that can be degraded without impacting recombination.
  • a donor sequence can be introduced into a cell as part of a vector molecule having additional sequences such as, for example, replication origins, promoters and genes encoding antibiotic resistance.
  • donor sequences can be introduced as naked nucleic acid, as nucleic acid complexed with an agent such as a liposome or poloxamer, or can be delivered by viruses (e.g., adenovirus, AAV), as described above for nucleic acids encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide.
  • viruses e.g., adenovirus, AAV
  • a DNA region of interest may be cleaved and modified, i.e. “genetically modified”, ex vivo.
  • the population of cells may be enriched for those comprising the genetic modification by separating the genetically modified cells from the remaining population.
  • the “genetically modified” cells may make up only about 1% or more (e.g., 2% or more, 3% or more, 4% or more, 5% or more, 6% or more, 7% or more, 8% or more, 9% or more, 10% or more, 15% or more, or 20% or more) of the cellular population.
  • Separation of “genetically modified” cells may be achieved by any convenient separation technique appropriate for the selectable marker used. For example, if a fluorescent marker has been inserted, cells may be separated by fluorescence activated cell sorting, whereas if a cell surface marker has been inserted, cells may be separated from the heterogeneous population by affinity separation techniques, e.g. magnetic separation, affinity chromatography, “panning” with an affinity reagent attached to a solid matrix, or other convenient technique.
  • Techniques providing accurate separation include fluorescence activated cell sorters, which can have varying degrees of sophistication, such as multiple color channels, low angle and obtuse light scattering detecting channels, impedance channels, etc.
  • the cells may be selected against dead cells by employing dyes associated with dead cells (e.g. propidium iodide). Any technique may be employed which is not unduly detrimental to the viability of the genetically modified cells.
  • Cell compositions that are highly enriched for cells comprising modified DNA are achieved in this manner.
  • “highly enriched” it is meant that the genetically modified cells will be 70% or more, 75% or more, 80% or more, 85% or more, 90% or more of the cell composition, for example, about 95% or more, or 98% or more of the cell composition.
  • the composition may be a substantially pure composition of genetically modified cells.
  • Genetically modified cells produced by the methods described herein may be used immediately.
  • the cells may be frozen at liquid nitrogen temperatures and stored for long periods of time, being thawed and capable of being reused.
  • the cells will usually be frozen in 10% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), 50% serum, 40% buffered medium, or some other such solution as is commonly used in the art to preserve cells at such freezing temperatures, and thawed in a manner as commonly known in the art for thawing frozen cultured cells.
  • DMSO dimethylsulfoxide
  • the genetically modified cells may be cultured in vitro under various culture conditions.
  • the cells may be expanded in culture, i.e. grown under conditions that promote their proliferation.
  • Culture medium may be liquid or semi-solid, e.g. containing agar, methylcellulose, etc.
  • the cell population may be suspended in an appropriate nutrient medium, such as Iscove's modified DMEM or RPMI 1640, normally supplemented with fetal calf serum (about 5-10%), L-glutamine, a thiol, particularly 2-mercaptoethanol, and antibiotics, e.g. penicillin and streptomycin.
  • the culture may contain growth factors to which the regulatory T cells are responsive.
  • Growth factors as defined herein, are molecules capable of promoting survival, growth and/or differentiation of cells, either in culture or in the intact tissue, through specific effects on a transmembrane receptor. Growth factors include polypeptides and non-polypeptide factors.
  • Cells that have been genetically modified in this way may be transplanted to a subject for purposes such as gene therapy, e.g. to treat a disease or as an antiviral, antipathogenic, or anticancer therapeutic, for the production of genetically modified organisms in agriculture, or for biological research.
  • the subject may be a neonate, a juvenile, or an adult.
  • Mammalian species that may be treated with the present methods include canines and felines; equines; bovines; ovines; etc. and primates, particularly humans.
  • Animal models, particularly small mammals e.g. mouse, rat, guinea pig, hamster, lagomorpha (e.g., rabbit), etc.
  • small mammals e.g. mouse, rat, guinea pig, hamster, lagomorpha (e.g., rabbit), etc.
  • Cells may be provided to the subject alone or with a suitable substrate or matrix, e.g. to support their growth and/or organization in the tissue to which they are being transplanted.
  • a suitable substrate or matrix e.g. to support their growth and/or organization in the tissue to which they are being transplanted.
  • at least 1 ⁇ 103 cells will be administered, for example 5 ⁇ 103 cells, 1 ⁇ 104 cells, 5 ⁇ 104 cells, 1 ⁇ 105 cells, 1 ⁇ 106 cells or more.
  • the cells may be introduced to the subject via any of the following routes: parenteral, subcutaneous, intravenous, intracranial, intraspinal, intraocular, or into spinal fluid.
  • the cells may be introduced by injection, catheter, or the like. Examples of methods for local delivery, that is, delivery to the site of injury, include, e.g. through an Ommaya reservoir, e.g. for intrathecal delivery (see e.g.
  • the number of administrations of treatment to a subject may vary. Introducing the genetically modified cells into the subject may be a one-time event; but in certain situations, such treatment may elicit improvement for a limited period of time and require an on-going series of repeated treatments. In other situations, multiple administrations of the genetically modified cells may be required before an effect is observed.
  • the exact protocols depend upon the disease or condition, the stage of the disease and parameters of the individual subject being treated.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide are employed to modify cellular DNA in vivo, again for purposes such as gene therapy, e.g. to treat a disease or as an antiviral, antipathogenic, or anticancer therapeutic, for the production of genetically modified organisms in agriculture, or for biological research.
  • a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide are administered directly to the individual.
  • a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide may be administered by any of a number of well-known methods in the art for the administration of peptides, small molecules and nucleic acids to a subject.
  • a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide can be incorporated into a variety of formulations. More particularly, a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide of the present invention can be formulated into pharmaceutical compositions by combination with appropriate pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or diluents.
  • compositions that include one or more a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide present in a pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle.
  • “Pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles” may be vehicles approved by a regulatory agency of the Federal or a state government or listed in the U.S. Pharmacopeia or other generally recognized pharmacopeia for use in mammals, such as humans.
  • vehicle refers to a diluent, adjuvant, excipient, or carrier with which a compound of the invention is formulated for administration to a mammal.
  • Such pharmaceutical vehicles can be lipids, e.g. liposomes, e.g.
  • liposome dendrimers such as water and oils, including those of petroleum, animal, vegetable or synthetic origin, such as peanut oil, soybean oil, mineral oil, sesame oil and the like, saline; gum acacia, gelatin, starch paste, talc, keratin, colloidal silica, urea, and the like.
  • auxiliary, stabilizing, thickening, lubricating and coloring agents may be used.
  • Pharmaceutical compositions may be formulated into preparations in solid, semi-solid, liquid or gaseous forms, such as tablets, capsules, powders, granules, ointments, solutions, suppositories, injections, inhalants, gels, microspheres, and aerosols.
  • administration of the a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide can be achieved in various ways, including oral, buccal, rectal, parenteral, intraperitoneal, intradermal, transdermal, intratracheal, intraocular, etc., administration.
  • the active agent may be systemic after administration or may be localized by the use of regional administration, intramural administration, or use of an implant that acts to retain the active dose at the site of implantation.
  • the active agent may be formulated for immediate activity or it may be formulated for sustained release.
  • BBB blood-brain barrier
  • osmotic means such as mannitol or leukotrienes
  • vasoactive substances such as bradykinin.
  • a BBB disrupting agent can be co-administered with the therapeutic compositions of the invention when the compositions are administered by intravascular injection.
  • an effective amount of a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide are provided.
  • an effective amount or effective dose of a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide in vivo is the amount to induce a 2 fold increase or more in the amount of recombination observed between two homologous sequences relative to a negative control, e.g. a cell contacted with an empty vector or irrelevant polypeptide.
  • the amount of recombination may be measured by any convenient method, e.g. as described above and known in the art.
  • the calculation of the effective amount or effective dose of a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide to be administered is within the skill of one of ordinary skill in the art, and will be routine to those persons skilled in the art.
  • the final amount to be administered will be dependent upon the route of administration and upon the nature of the disorder or condition that is to be treated.
  • the effective amount given to a particular patient will depend on a variety of factors, several of which will differ from patient to patient.
  • a competent clinician will be able to determine an effective amount of a therapeutic agent to administer to a patient to halt or reverse the progression the disease condition as required.
  • a clinician can determine the maximum safe dose for an individual, depending on the route of administration. For instance, an intravenously administered dose may be more than an intrathecally administered dose, given the greater body of fluid into which the therapeutic composition is being administered. Similarly, compositions which are rapidly cleared from the body may be administered at higher doses, or in repeated doses, in order to maintain a therapeutic concentration.
  • the competent clinician will be able to optimize the dosage of a particular therapeutic in the course of routine clinical trials.
  • a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide may be obtained from a suitable commercial source.
  • the total pharmaceutically effective amount of the a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide administered parenterally per dose will be in a range that can be measured by a dose response curve.
  • Therapies based on a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotides i.e. preparations of a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide to be used for therapeutic administration, must be sterile. Sterility is readily accomplished by filtration through sterile filtration membranes (e.g., 0.2 ⁇ m membranes).
  • Therapeutic compositions generally are placed into a container having a sterile access port, for example, an intravenous solution bag or vial having a stopper pierceable by a hypodermic injection needle.
  • the therapies based on a DNA-targeting RNA and/or site-directed modifying polypeptide and/or donor polynucleotide may be stored in unit or multi-dose containers, for example, sealed ampules or vials, as an aqueous solution or as a lyophilized formulation for reconstitution.
  • a lyophilized formulation 10-mL vials are filled with 5 ml of sterile-filtered 1% (w/v) aqueous solution of compound, and the resulting mixture is lyophilized.
  • the infusion solution is prepared by reconstituting the lyophilized compound using bacteriostatic Water-for-Injection.
  • compositions can include, depending on the formulation desired, pharmaceutically-acceptable, non-toxic carriers of diluents, which are defined as vehicles commonly used to formulate pharmaceutical compositions for animal or human administration.
  • diluents are selected so as not to affect the biological activity of the combination. Examples of such diluents are distilled water, buffered water, physiological saline, PBS, Ringer's solution, dextrose solution, and Hank's solution.
  • the pharmaceutical composition or formulation can include other carriers, adjuvants, or non-toxic, nontherapeutic, nonimmunogenic stabilizers, excipients and the like.
  • the compositions can also include additional substances to approximate physiological conditions, such as pH adjusting and buffering agents, toxicity adjusting agents, wetting agents and detergents.
  • the composition can also include any of a variety of stabilizing agents, such as an antioxidant for example.
  • the polypeptide can be complexed with various well-known compounds that enhance the in vivo stability of the polypeptide, or otherwise enhance its pharmacological properties (e.g., increase the half-life of the polypeptide, reduce its toxicity, enhance solubility or uptake). Examples of such modifications or complexing agents include sulfate, gluconate, citrate and phosphate.
  • the nucleic acids or polypeptides of a composition can also be complexed with molecules that enhance their in vivo attributes. Such molecules include, for example, carbohydrates, polyamines, amino acids, other peptides, ions (e.g., sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese), and lipids.
  • the pharmaceutical compositions can be administered for prophylactic and/or therapeutic treatments.
  • Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of the active ingredient can be determined according to standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures and/or experimental animals, including, for example, determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population).
  • the dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio LD50/ED50. Therapies that exhibit large therapeutic indices are preferred.
  • the data obtained from cell culture and/or animal studies can be used in formulating a range of dosages for humans.
  • the dosage of the active ingredient typically lines within a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED50 with low toxicity.
  • the dosage can vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized.
  • compositions intended for in vivo use are usually sterile. To the extent that a given compound must be synthesized prior to use, the resulting product is typically substantially free of any potentially toxic agents, particularly any endotoxins, which may be present during the synthesis or purification process.
  • compositions for parental administration are also sterile, substantially isotonic and made under GMP conditions.
  • the effective amount of a therapeutic composition to be given to a particular patient will depend on a variety of factors, several of which will differ from patient to patient.
  • a competent clinician will be able to determine an effective amount of a therapeutic agent to administer to a patient to halt or reverse the progression the disease condition as required.
  • a clinician can determine the maximum safe dose for an individual, depending on the route of administration. For instance, an intravenously administered dose may be more than an intrathecally administered dose, given the greater body of fluid into which the therapeutic composition is being administered. Similarly, compositions which are rapidly cleared from the body may be administered at higher doses, or in repeated doses, in order to maintain a therapeutic concentration.
  • the competent clinician will be able to optimize the dosage of a particular therapeutic in the course of routine clinical trials.
  • the present disclosure provides genetically modified host cells, including isolated genetically modified host cells, where a subject genetically modified host cell comprises (has been genetically modified with: 1) an exogenous DNA-targeting RNA; 2) an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA; 3) an exogenous site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.); 4) an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide; or 5) any combination of the above.
  • a subject genetically modified host cell comprises (has been genetically modified with: 1) an exogenous DNA-targeting RNA; 2) an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA; 3) an exogenous site-directed
  • a subject genetically modified cell is generated by genetically modifying a host cell with, for example: 1) an exogenous DNA-targeting RNA; 2) an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA; 3) an exogenous site-directed modifying polypeptide; 4) an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide; or 5) any combination of the above.).
  • a genetically modified host cells of interest can be a cell from any organism (e.g. a bacterial cell, an archaeal cell, a cell of a single-cell eukaryotic organism, a plant cell, an algal cell, e.g., Botryococcus braunii, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Nannochloropsis gaditana, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Sargassum patens C. Agardh , and the like, a fungal cell (e.g., a yeast cell), an animal cell, a cell from an invertebrate animal (e.g.
  • organism e.g. a bacterial cell, an archaeal cell, a cell of a single-cell eukaryotic organism, a plant cell, an algal cell, e.g., Botryococcus braunii, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Nannochloropsis gaditana, Ch
  • a cell from a vertebrate animal e.g., fish, amphibian, reptile, bird, mammal
  • a cell from a mammal e.g., a pig, a cow, a goat, a sheep, a rodent, a rat, a mouse, a non-human primate, a human, etc.
  • a vertebrate animal e.g., fish, amphibian, reptile, bird, mammal
  • a cell from a mammal e.g., a pig, a cow, a goat, a sheep, a rodent, a rat, a mouse, a non-human primate, a human, etc.
  • a genetically modified host cell has been genetically modified with an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.).
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • the DNA of a genetically modified host cell can be targeted for modification by introducing into the cell a DNA-targeting RNA (or a DNA encoding a DNA-targeting RNA, which determines the genomic location/sequence to be modified) and optionally a donor nucleic acid.
  • the nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to an inducible promoter (e.g., heat shock promoter, Tetracycline-regulated promoter, Steroid-regulated promoter, Metal-regulated promoter, estrogen receptor-regulated promoter, etc.).
  • the nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to a spatially restricted and/or temporally restricted promoter (e.g., a tissue specific promoter, a cell type specific promoter, etc.).
  • the nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide is operably linked to a constitutive promoter.
  • a subject genetically modified host cell is in vitro. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is in vivo. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is a prokaryotic cell or is derived from a prokaryotic cell. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is a bacterial cell or is derived from a bacterial cell. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is an archaeal cell or is derived from an archaeal cell. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is a eukaryotic cell or is derived from a eukaryotic cell.
  • a subject genetically modified host cell is a plant cell or is derived from a plant cell. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is an animal cell or is derived from an animal cell. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is an invertebrate cell or is derived from an invertebrate cell. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is a vertebrate cell or is derived from a vertebrate cell. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is a mammalian cell or is derived from a mammalian cell. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is a rodent cell or is derived from a rodent cell. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell is a human cell or is derived from a human cell.
  • the present disclosure further provides progeny of a subject genetically modified cell, where the progeny can comprise the same exogenous nucleic acid or polypeptide as the subject genetically modified cell from which it was derived.
  • the present disclosure further provides a composition comprising a subject genetically modified host cell.
  • a subject genetically modified host cell is a genetically modified stem cell or progenitor cell.
  • Suitable host cells include, e.g., stem cells (adult stem cells, embryonic stem cells, iPS cells, etc.) and progenitor cells (e.g., cardiac progenitor cells, neural progenitor cells, etc.).
  • Suitable host cells include mammalian stem cells and progenitor cells, including, e.g., rodent stem cells, rodent progenitor cells, human stem cells, human progenitor cells, etc.
  • Suitable host cells include in vitro host cells, e.g., isolated host cells.
  • a subject genetically modified host cell comprises an exogenous DNA-targeting RNA nucleic acid. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell comprises an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell comprises an exogenous site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.). In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell comprises an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide. In some embodiments, a subject genetically modified host cell comprises exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding 1) a DNA-targeting RNA and 2) a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, or 100%, amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the present invention provides a composition comprising a subject DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide is a subject chimeric polypeptide.
  • a subject composition is useful for carrying out a method of the present disclosure, e.g., a method for site-specific modification of a target DNA; a method for site-specific modification of a polypeptide associated with a target DNA; etc.
  • compositions Comprising a DNA-Targeting RNA
  • the present invention provides a composition comprising a subject DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the composition can comprise, in addition to the DNA-targeting RNA, one or more of: a salt, e.g., NaCl, MgCl 2 , KCl, MgSO 4 , etc.; a buffering agent, e.g., a Tris buffer, N-(2-Hydroxyethyl)piperazine-N′-(2-ethanesulfonic acid) (HEPES), 2-(N-Morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES), MES sodium salt, 3-(N-Morpholino)propanesulfonic acid (MOPS), N-tris[Hydroxymethyl]methyl-3-aminopropanesulfonic acid (TAPS), etc.; a solubilizing agent; a detergent, e.g., a non-ionic detergent such as Tween-20, etc.; a nuclease
  • a DNA-targeting RNA present in a subject composition is pure, e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or more than 99% pure, where “% purity” means that DNA-targeting RNA is the recited percent free from other macromolecules, or contaminants that may be present during the production of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • compositions comprising a Subject Chimeric Polypeptide
  • the present invention provides a composition a subject chimeric polypeptide.
  • the composition can comprise, in addition to the DNA-targeting RNA, one or more of: a salt, e.g., NaCl, MgCl 2 , KCl, MgSO 4 , etc.; a buffering agent, e.g., a Tris buffer, HEPES, MES, MES sodium salt, MOPS, TAPS, etc.; a solubilizing agent; a detergent, e.g., a non-ionic detergent such as Tween-20, etc.; a protease inhibitor; a reducing agent (e.g., dithiothreitol); and the like.
  • a salt e.g., NaCl, MgCl 2 , KCl, MgSO 4 , etc.
  • a buffering agent e.g., a Tris buffer, HEPES, MES, MES sodium salt, MOPS, TAPS, etc.
  • a subject chimeric polypeptide present in a subject composition is pure, e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or more than 99% pure, where “% purity” means that the site-directed modifying polypeptide is the recited percent free from other proteins, other macromolecules, or contaminants that may be present during the production of the chimeric polypeptide.
  • compositions Comprising a DNA-Targeting RNA and a Site-Directed Modifying Polypeptide
  • the present invention provides a composition comprising: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same; and ii) a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide is a subject chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide is a naturally-occurring site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide exhibits enzymatic activity that modifies a target DNA.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide exhibits enzymatic activity that modifies a polypeptide that is associated with a target DNA.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide modulates transcription of the target DNA.
  • the present invention provides a composition comprising: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, as described above, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) the site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a subject composition comprises: a composition comprising: (i) a subject DNA-targeting RNA, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) the site-directed modifying polypeptide, the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a subject composition comprises: (i) a polynucleotide encoding a subject DNA-targeting RNA, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a polynucleotide encoding the site-directed modifying polypeptide, the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a subject composition includes both RNA molecules of a double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a subject composition includes an activator-RNA that comprises a duplex-forming segment that is complementary to the duplex-forming segment of a targeter-RNA (see FIG. 1A ).
  • the duplex-forming segments of the activator-RNA and the targeter-RNA hybridize to form the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the targeter-RNA further provides the DNA-targeting segment (single stranded) of the DNA-targeting RNA and therefore targets the DNA-targeting RNA to a specific sequence within the target DNA.
  • the duplex-forming segment of the activator-RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence that has at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, or 100% identity with the sequence 5′-UAGCAAGUUAAAAU-3′ (SEQ ID NO:562).
  • the duplex-forming segment of the targeter-RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence that has at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, or 100% identity with the sequence 5′-GUUUUAGAGCUA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:679).
  • the present disclosure provides a composition comprising: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) the site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a subject composition comprises: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) the site-directed modifying polypeptide, the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a subject composition comprises: (i) a DNA polynucleotide encoding a DNA-targeting RNA, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a polynucleotide encoding the site-directed modifying polypeptide, the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a subject composition can comprise, in addition to i) a subject DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same; and ii) a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, one or more of: a salt, e.g., NaCl, MgCl 2 , KCl, MgSO 4 , etc.; a buffering agent, e.g., a Tris buffer, HEPES, MES, MES sodium salt, MOPS, TAPS, etc.; a solubilizing agent; a detergent, e.g., a non-ionic detergent such as Tween-20, etc.; a protease inhibitor; a reducing agent (e.g., dithiothreitol); and the like.
  • a salt e.g., NaCl, MgCl 2 , KCl, MgSO 4 , etc.
  • the components of the composition are individually pure, e.g., each of the components is at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or at least 99%, pure. In some cases, the individual components of a subject composition are pure before being added to the composition.
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide present in a subject composition is pure, e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or more than 99% pure, where “% purity” means that the site-directed modifying polypeptide is the recited percent free from other proteins (e.g., proteins other than the site-directed modifying polypeptide), other macromolecules, or contaminants that may be present during the production of the site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • kits for carrying out a subject method can include one or more of: a site-directed modifying polypeptide; a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide; a DNA-targeting RNA; a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA; an activator-RNA; a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an activator-RNA; a targeter-RNA; and a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a targeter-RNA.
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide; a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide; a DNA-targeting RNA; a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA; an activator-RNA; a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an activator-RNA; a targeter-RNA; and a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a targeter-RNA, are described in detail above.
  • a kit may comprise a complex that comprises two or more of: a site-directed modifying polypeptide; a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide; a DNA-targeting RNA; a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA; an activator-RNA; a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an activator-RNA; a targeter-RNA; and a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a targeter-RNA.
  • a subject kit comprises a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the activity portion of the site-directed modifying polypeptide exhibits reduced or inactivated nuclease activity.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide is a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a subject kit comprises: a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, and a reagent for reconstituting and/or diluting the site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a subject kit comprises a nucleic acid (e.g., DNA, RNA) comprising a nucleotide encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a subject kit comprises: a nucleic acid (e.g., DNA, RNA) comprising a nucleotide encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and a reagent for reconstituting and/or diluting the site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a nucleic acid e.g., DNA, RNA
  • a reagent for reconstituting and/or diluting the site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., DNA, RNA
  • a subject kit comprising a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same can further include one or more additional reagents, where such additional reagents can be selected from: a buffer for introducing the site-directed modifying polypeptide into a cell; a wash buffer; a control reagent; a control expression vector or RNA polynucleotide; a reagent for in vitro production of the site-directed modifying polypeptide from DNA, and the like.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide included in a subject kit is a chimeric site-directed modifying polypeptide, as described above.
  • a subject kit comprises a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA further comprises a third segment (as described above).
  • a subject kit comprises: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, the DNA-targeting RNA comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the activity portion of the site-directed modifying polypeptide does not exhibit enzymatic activity (comprises an inactivated nuclease, e.g., via mutation).
  • the kit comprises a DNA-targeting RNA and a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the kit comprises: (i) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA; and (ii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a subject kit can include: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a DNA polynucleotide encoding the same, comprising: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) the site-directed modifying polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the same, comprising: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA
  • the kit comprises: (i) a DNA-targeting RNA; and a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the kit comprises: (i) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA; and (ii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the present disclosure provides a kit comprising: (1) a recombinant expression vector comprising (i) a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a nucleotide sequence encoding the site-directed modifying polypeptide, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.; and (2) a reagent for reconstitution and/or dilution of the expression vector.
  • the present disclosure provides a kit comprising: (1) a recombinant expression vector comprising: (i) a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises: (a) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (b) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (ii) a nucleotide sequence encoding the site-directed modifying polypeptide, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA; and (2) a reagent for reconstitution and/or dilution of the recombinant expression vector.
  • the present disclosure provides a kit comprising: (1) a recombinant expression vector comprising a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes a DNA targeting RNA comprising: (i) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in a target DNA; and (ii) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed modifying polypeptide; and (2) a reagent for reconstitution and/or dilution of the recombinant expression vector.
  • the kit comprises: a recombinant expression vector comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes a site-directed modifying polypeptide, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that exhibits site-directed enzymatic activity, wherein the site of enzymatic activity is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the kit comprises: a recombinant expression vector comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes a site-directed modifying polypeptide, wherein the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises: (a) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and (b) an activity portion that modulates transcription within the target DNA, wherein the site of modulated transcription within the target DNA is determined by the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the kit comprises an activator-RNA or a targeter-RNA. In some embodiments of any of the above kits, the kit comprises a single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA. In some embodiments of any of the above kits, the kit comprises two or more double-molecule or single-molecule DNA-targeting RNAs. In some embodiments of any of the above kits, a DNA-targeting RNA (e.g., including two or more DNA-targeting RNAs) can be provided as an array (e.g., an array of RNA molecules, an array of DNA molecules encoding the DNA-targeting RNA(s), etc.).
  • an array e.g., an array of RNA molecules, an array of DNA molecules encoding the DNA-targeting RNA(s), etc.
  • kits can be useful, for example, for use in conjunction with the above described genetically modified host cells that comprise a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the kit further comprises a donor polynucleotide to effect the desired genetic modification.
  • Components of a subject kit can be in separate containers; or can be combined in a single container.
  • kits can further include one or more additional reagents, where such additional reagents can be selected from: a dilution buffer; a reconstitution solution; a wash buffer; a control reagent; a control expression vector or RNA polynucleotide; a reagent for in vitro production of the site-directed modifying polypeptide from DNA, and the like.
  • additional reagents can be selected from: a dilution buffer; a reconstitution solution; a wash buffer; a control reagent; a control expression vector or RNA polynucleotide; a reagent for in vitro production of the site-directed modifying polypeptide from DNA, and the like.
  • a subject kit can further include instructions for using the components of the kit to practice the subject methods.
  • the instructions for practicing the subject methods are generally recorded on a suitable recording medium.
  • the instructions may be printed on a substrate, such as paper or plastic, etc.
  • the instructions may be present in the kits as a package insert, in the labeling of the container of the kit or components thereof (i.e., associated with the packaging or subpackaging) etc.
  • the instructions are present as an electronic storage data file present on a suitable computer readable storage medium, e.g. CD-ROM, diskette, flash drive, etc.
  • the actual instructions are not present in the kit, but means for obtaining the instructions from a remote source, e.g. via the internet, are provided.
  • An example of this embodiment is a kit that includes a web address where the instructions can be viewed and/or from which the instructions can be downloaded. As with the instructions, this means for obtaining the instructions is recorded on a suitable substrate.
  • a genetically modified host cell has been genetically modified with an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.). If such a cell is a eukaryotic single-cell organism, then the modified cell can be considered a genetically modified organism.
  • subject non-human genetically modified organism is a Cas9 transgenic multicellular organism.
  • a subject genetically modified non-human host cell e.g., a cell that has been genetically modified with an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide, e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • a subject genetically modified non-human organism e.g., a mouse, a fish, a frog, a fly, a worm, etc.
  • the genetically modified host cell is a pluripotent stem cell (i.e., PSC) or a germ cell (e.g., sperm, oocyte, etc.)
  • a pluripotent stem cell i.e., PSC
  • a germ cell e.g., sperm, oocyte, etc.
  • an entire genetically modified organism can be derived from the genetically modified host cell.
  • the genetically modified host cell is a pluripotent stem cell (e.g., ESC, iPSC, pluripotent plant stem cell, etc.) or a germ cell (e.g., sperm cell, oocyte, etc.), either in vivo or in vitro, that can give rise to a genetically modified organism.
  • the genetically modified host cell is a vertebrate PSC (e.g., ESC, iPSC, etc.) and is used to generate a genetically modified organism (e.g. by injecting a PSC into a blastocyst to produce a chimeric/mosaic animal, which could then be mated to generate non-chimeric/non-mosaic genetically modified organisms; grafting in the case of plants; etc.).
  • a vertebrate PSC e.g., ESC, iPSC, etc.
  • a genetically modified organism e.g. by injecting a PSC into a blastocyst to produce a chimeric/mosaic animal, which could then be mated to generate non-chimeric/non-mosaic genetically modified organisms; grafting in the case of plants; etc.
  • Any convenient method/protocol for producing a genetically modified organism is suitable for producing a genetically modified host cell comprising an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.).
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • Methods of producing genetically modified organisms are known in the art. For example, see Cho et al., Curr Protoc Cell Biol. 2009 March; Chapter 19:Unit 19.11: Generation of transgenic mice; Gama et al., Brain Struct Funct.
  • a genetically modified organism comprises a target cell for methods of the invention, and thus can be considered a source for target cells.
  • a genetically modified cell comprising an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.) is used to generate a genetically modified organism, then the cells of the genetically modified organism comprise the exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.).
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or
  • the DNA of a cell or cells of the genetically modified organism can be targeted for modification by introducing into the cell or cells a DNA-targeting RNA (or a DNA encoding a DNA-targeting RNA) and optionally a donor nucleic acid.
  • a DNA-targeting RNA or a DNA encoding a DNA-targeting RNA
  • a subset of cells e.g., brain cells, intestinal cells, kidney cells, lung cells, blood cells, etc.
  • a genetically modified organism is a source of target cells for methods of the invention.
  • a genetically modified organism comprising cells that are genetically modified with an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.) can provide a source of genetically modified cells, for example PSCs (e.g., ESCs, iPSCs, sperm, oocytes, etc.), neurons, progenitor cells, cardiomyocytes, etc.
  • PSCs e.g., ESCs, iPSCs, sperm, oocytes, etc.
  • a genetically modified cell is a PSC comprising an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.).
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • the PSC can be a target cell such that the DNA of the PSC can be targeted for modification by introducing into the PSC a DNA-targeting RNA (or a DNA encoding a DNA-targeting RNA) and optionally a donor nucleic acid, and the genomic location of the modification will depend on the DNA-targeting sequence of the introduced DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the methods described herein can be used to modify the DNA (e.g., delete and/or replace any desired genomic location) of PSCs derived from a subject genetically modified organism.
  • modified PSCs can then be used to generate organisms having both (i) an exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.) and (ii) a DNA modification that was introduced into the PSC.
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • An exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.) can be under the control of (i.e., operably linked to) an unknown promoter (e.g., when the nucleic acid randomly integrates into a host cell genome) or can be under the control of (i.e., operably linked to) a known promoter.
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • an unknown promoter e.g., when the nucleic acid randomly integrates into a host cell genome
  • a known promoter e.g., when the nucleic acid randomly integrates into a host
  • Suitable known promoters can be any known promoter and include constitutively active promoters (e.g., CMV promoter), inducible promoters (e.g., heat shock promoter, Tetracycline-regulated promoter, Steroid-regulated promoter, Metal-regulated promoter, estrogen receptor-regulated promoter, etc.), spatially restricted and/or temporally restricted promoters (e.g., a tissue specific promoter, a cell type specific promoter, etc.), etc.
  • constitutively active promoters e.g., CMV promoter
  • inducible promoters e.g., heat shock promoter, Tetracycline-regulated promoter, Steroid-regulated promoter, Metal-regulated promoter, estrogen receptor-regulated promoter, etc.
  • spatially restricted and/or temporally restricted promoters e.g., a tissue specific promoter, a cell type specific promoter, etc.
  • a subject genetically modified organism e.g. an organism whose cells comprise a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide, e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • a plant e.g., a plant; algae; an invertebrate (e.g., a cnidarian, an echinoderm, a worm, a fly, etc.); a vertebrate (e.g., a fish (e.g., zebrafish, puffer fish, gold fish, etc.), an amphibian (e.g., salamander, frog, etc.), a reptile, a bird, a mammal, etc.); an ungulate (e.g., a goat, a pig, a sheep, a cow, etc.); a rodent (e.g.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, or 100%, amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • a subject nucleic acid e.g., a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide, e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • a subject recombinant expression vector is used as a transgene to generate a transgenic animal that produces a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the present invention further provides a transgenic non-human animal, which animal comprises a transgene comprising a subject nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide, e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc., as described above.
  • the genome of the transgenic non-human animal comprises a subject nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the transgenic non-human animal is homozygous for the genetic modification. In some embodiments, the transgenic non-human animal is heterozygous for the genetic modification.
  • the transgenic non-human animal is a vertebrate, for example, a fish (e.g., zebra fish, gold fish, puffer fish, cave fish, etc.), an amphibian (frog, salamander, etc.), a bird (e.g., chicken, turkey, etc.), a reptile (e.g., snake, lizard, etc.), a mammal (e.g., an ungulate, e.g., a pig, a cow, a goat, a sheep, etc.; a lagomorph (e.g., a rabbit); a rodent (e.g., a rat, a mouse); a non-human primate; etc.), etc.
  • a fish e.g., zebra fish, gold fish, puffer fish, cave fish, etc.
  • an amphibian frog, salamander, etc.
  • a bird e.g., chicken, turkey, etc.
  • a reptile e.g
  • An exogenous nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide (e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.) can be under the control of (i.e., operably linked to) an unknown promoter (e.g., when the nucleic acid randomly integrates into a host cell genome) or can be under the control of (i.e., operably linked to) a known promoter.
  • a site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • an unknown promoter e.g., when the nucleic acid randomly integrates into a host cell genome
  • a known promoter e.g., when the nucleic acid randomly integrates into a host
  • Suitable known promoters can be any known promoter and include constitutively active promoters (e.g., CMV promoter), inducible promoters (e.g., heat shock promoter, Tetracycline-regulated promoter, Steroid-regulated promoter, Metal-regulated promoter, estrogen receptor-regulated promoter, etc.), spatially restricted and/or temporally restricted promoters (e.g., a tissue specific promoter, a cell type specific promoter, etc.), etc.
  • constitutively active promoters e.g., CMV promoter
  • inducible promoters e.g., heat shock promoter, Tetracycline-regulated promoter, Steroid-regulated promoter, Metal-regulated promoter, estrogen receptor-regulated promoter, etc.
  • spatially restricted and/or temporally restricted promoters e.g., a tissue specific promoter, a cell type specific promoter, etc.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, or 100%, amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • a subject nucleic acid e.g., a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide, e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • a subject recombinant expression vector is used as a transgene to generate a transgenic plant that produces a site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • the present invention further provides a transgenic plant, which plant comprises a transgene comprising a subject nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding site-directed modifying polypeptide, e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc., as described above.
  • site-directed modifying polypeptide e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • the genome of the transgenic plant comprises a subject nucleic acid.
  • the transgenic plant is homozygous for the genetic modification.
  • the transgenic plant is heterozygous for the genetic modification.
  • Suitable methods include viral infection (such as double stranded DNA viruses), transfection, conjugation, protoplast fusion, electroporation, particle gun technology, calcium phosphate precipitation, direct microinjection, silicon carbide whiskers technology, Agrobacterium -mediated transformation and the like.
  • viral infection such as double stranded DNA viruses
  • transfection conjugation
  • protoplast fusion electroporation
  • particle gun technology particle gun technology
  • calcium phosphate precipitation direct microinjection
  • silicon carbide whiskers technology Agrobacterium -mediated transformation and the like.
  • the choice of method is generally dependent on the type of cell being transformed and the circumstances under which the transformation is taking place (i.e. in vitro, ex vivo, or in vivo).
  • Transformation methods based upon the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens are particularly useful for introducing an exogenous nucleic acid molecule into a vascular plant.
  • the wild type form of Agrobacterium contains a Ti (tumor-inducing) plasmid that directs production of tumorigenic crown gall growth on host plants. Transfer of the tumor-inducing T-DNA region of the Ti plasmid to a plant genome requires the Ti plasmid-encoded virulence genes as well as T-DNA borders, which are a set of direct DNA repeats that delineate the region to be transferred.
  • An Agrobacterium -based vector is a modified form of a Ti plasmid, in which the tumor inducing functions are replaced by the nucleic acid sequence of interest to be introduced into the plant host.
  • Agrobacterium -mediated transformation generally employs cointegrate vectors or binary vector systems, in which the components of the Ti plasmid are divided between a helper vector, which resides permanently in the Agrobacterium host and carries the virulence genes, and a shuttle vector, which contains the gene of interest bounded by T-DNA sequences.
  • binary vectors are well known in the art and are commercially available, for example, from Clontech (Palo Alto, Calif.).
  • Methods of coculturing Agrobacterium with cultured plant cells or wounded tissue such as leaf tissue, root explants, hypocotyledons, stem pieces or tubers, for example, also are well known in the art. See., e.g., Glick and Thompson, (eds.), Methods in Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology , Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press (1993).
  • Microprojectile-mediated transformation also can be used to produce a subject transgenic plant.
  • This method first described by Klein et al. ( Nature 327:70-73 (1987)), relies on microprojectiles such as gold or tungsten that are coated with the desired nucleic acid molecule by precipitation with calcium chloride, spermidine or polyethylene glycol.
  • the microprojectile particles are accelerated at high speed into an angiosperm tissue using a device such as the BIOLISTIC PD-1000 (Biorad; Hercules Calif.).
  • a subject nucleic acid may be introduced into a plant in a manner such that the nucleic acid is able to enter a plant cell(s), e.g., via an in vivo or ex vivo protocol.
  • in vivo it is meant in the nucleic acid is administered to a living body of a plant e.g. infiltration.
  • ex vivo it is meant that cells or explants are modified outside of the plant, and then such cells or organs are regenerated to a plant.
  • non-Ti vectors can be used to transfer the DNA into plants and cells by using free DNA delivery techniques.
  • transgenic plants such as wheat, rice (Christou (1991) Bio/Technology 9:957-9 and 4462) and corn (Gordon-Kamm (1990) Plant Cell 2: 603-618) can be produced.
  • An immature embryo can also be a good target tissue for monocots for direct DNA delivery techniques by using the particle gun (Weeks et al. (1993) Plant Physiol 102: 1077-1084; Vasil (1993) Bio/Technolo 10: 667-674; Wan and Lemeaux (1994) Plant Physiol 104: 37-48 and for Agrobacterium -mediated DNA transfer (Ishida et al.
  • Exemplary methods for introduction of DNA into chloroplasts are biolistic bombardment, polyethylene glycol transformation of protoplasts, and microinjection (Danieli et al Nat. Biotechnol 16:345-348, 1998; Staub et al Nat. Biotechnol 18: 333-338, 2000; O'Neill et al Plant J. 3:729-738, 1993; Knoblauch et al Nat. Biotechnol 17: 906-909; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,451,513, 5,545,817, 5,545,818, and 5,576,198; in Intl. Application No.
  • Any vector suitable for the methods of biolistic bombardment, polyethylene glycol transformation of protoplasts and microinjection will be suitable as a targeting vector for chloroplast transformation.
  • Any double stranded DNA vector may be used as a transformation vector, especially when the method of introduction does not utilize Agrobacterium.
  • Plants which can be genetically modified include grains, forage crops, fruits, vegetables, oil seed crops, palms, forestry, and vines. Specific examples of plants which can be modified follow: maize, banana, peanut, field peas, sunflower, tomato, canola, tobacco, wheat, barley, oats, potato, soybeans, cotton, carnations, sorghum, lupin and rice.
  • transformed plant cells, tissues, plants and products that contain the transformed plant cells.
  • a feature of the subject transformed cells, and tissues and products that include the same is the presence of a subject nucleic acid integrated into the genome, and production by plant cells of a site-directed modifying polypeptide, e.g., a naturally occurring Cas9; a modified, i.e., mutated or variant, Cas9; a chimeric Cas9; etc.
  • Recombinant plant cells of the present invention are useful as populations of recombinant cells, or as a tissue, seed, whole plant, stem, fruit, leaf, root, flower, stem, tuber, grain, animal feed, a field of plants, and the like.
  • a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide can be under the control of (i.e., operably linked to) an unknown promoter (e.g., when the nucleic acid randomly integrates into a host cell genome) or can be under the control of (i.e., operably linked to) a known promoter.
  • Suitable known promoters can be any known promoter and include constitutively active promoters, inducible promoters, spatially restricted and/or temporally restricted promoters, etc.
  • the site-directed modifying polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, or 100%, amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 , or to the corresponding portions in any of the amino acid sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • reproductive material of a subject transgenic plant where reproductive material includes seeds, progeny plants and clonal material.
  • nucleic acid refers to a nucleic acid, polypeptide, cell, or organism that is found in nature.
  • a polypeptide or polynucleotide sequence that is present in an organism (including viruses) that can be isolated from a source in nature and which has not been intentionally modified by a human in the laboratory is naturally occurring.
  • Heterologous means a nucleotide or polypeptide sequence that is not found in the native nucleic acid or protein, respectively.
  • a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide may be fused to a heterologous polypeptide (i.e. a polypeptide other than Cas9).
  • the heterologous polypeptide may exhibit an activity (e.g., enzymatic activity) that will also be exhibited by the fusion variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide.
  • a heterologous nucleic acid sequence may be linked to a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide (e.g., by genetic engineering) to generate a nucleotide sequence encoding a fusion variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide.
  • chimeric polypeptide refers to a polypeptide which is not naturally occurring, e.g., is made by the artificial combination of two otherwise separated segments of amino sequence through human intervention. Thus, a chimeric polypeptide is also the result of human intervention. Thus, a polypeptide that comprises a chimeric amino acid sequence is a chimeric polypeptide.
  • site-directed polypeptide or “RNA-binding site-directed polypeptide” or “RNA-binding site-directed polypeptide” it is meant a polypeptide that binds RNA and is targeted to a specific DNA sequence.
  • a site-directed polypeptide as described herein is targeted to a specific DNA sequence by the RNA molecule to which it is bound.
  • the RNA molecule comprises a sequence that is complementary to a target sequence within the target DNA, thus targeting the bound polypeptide to a specific location within the target DNA (the target sequence).
  • a subject nucleic acid e.g., a DNA-targeting RNA, a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA; a nucleic acid encoding a site-directed polypeptide; etc.
  • a modification or sequence that provides for an additional desirable feature (e.g., modified or regulated stability; subcellular targeting; tracking, e.g., a fluorescent label; a binding site for a protein or protein complex; etc.).
  • Non-limiting examples include: a 5′ cap (e.g., a 7-methylguanylate cap (m 7 G)); a 3′ polyadenylated tail (i.e., a 3′ poly(A) tail); a riboswitch sequence (e.g., to allow for regulated stability and/or regulated accessibility by proteins and/or protein complexes); a modification or sequence that targets the RNA to a subcellular location (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the like); a modification or sequence that provides for tracking (e.g., direct conjugation to a fluorescent molecule, conjugation to a moiety that facilitates fluorescent detection, a sequence that allows for fluorescent detection, etc.); a modification or sequence that provides a binding site for proteins (e.g., proteins that act on DNA, including transcriptional activators, transcriptional repressors, DNA methyltransferases, DNA demethylases, histone acetyltransferases, histone deacety
  • a DNA-targeting RNA comprises an additional segment at either the 5′ or 3′ end that provides for any of the features described above.
  • a suitable third segment can comprise a 5′ cap (e.g., a 7-methylguanylate cap (m 7 G)); a 3′ polyadenylated tail (i.e., a 3′ poly(A) tail); a riboswitch sequence (e.g., to allow for regulated stability and/or regulated accessibility by proteins and protein complexes); a sequence that targets the RNA to a subcellular location (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the like); a modification or sequence that provides for tracking (e.g., direct conjugation to a fluorescent molecule, conjugation to a moiety that facilitates fluorescent detection, a sequence that allows for fluorescent detection, etc.); a modification or sequence that provides a binding site for proteins (e.g., proteins that act on DNA, including transcriptional activators, transcriptional repress
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA and a subject site-directed polypeptide form a complex (i.e., bind via non-covalent interactions).
  • the DNA-targeting RNA provides target specificity to the complex by comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence of a target DNA.
  • the site-directed polypeptide of the complex provides the site-specific activity.
  • the site-directed polypeptide is guided to a target DNA sequence (e.g. a target sequence in a chromosomal nucleic acid; a target sequence in an extrachromosomal nucleic acid, e.g.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA comprises two separate RNA molecules (RNA polynucleotides) and is referred to herein as a “double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA” or a “two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA.”
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA is a single RNA molecule (single RNA polynucleotide) and is referred to herein as a “single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA.”. If not otherwise specified, the term “DNA-targeting RNA” is inclusive, referring to both single-molecule DNA-targeting RNAs and double-molecule DNA-targeting RNAs.
  • a subject two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises two separate RNA molecules (a “targeter-RNA” and an “activator-RNA”).
  • Each of the two RNA molecules of a subject two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises a stretch of nucleotides that are complementary to one another such that the complementary nucleotides of the two RNA molecules hybridize to form the double stranded RNA duplex of the protein-binding segment.
  • a subject single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises two stretches of nucleotides (a targeter-RNA and an activator-RNA) that are complementary to one another, are covalently linked by intervening nucleotides (“linkers” or “linker nucleotides”), and hybridize to form the double stranded RNA duplex (dsRNA duplex) of the protein-binding segment, thus resulting in a stem-loop structure.
  • the targeter-RNA and the activator-RNA can be covalently linked via the 3′ end of the targeter-RNA and the 5′ end of the activator-RNA.
  • targeter-RNA and the activator-RNA can be covalently linked via the 5′ end of the targeter-RNA and the 3′ end of the activator-RNA.
  • An exemplary two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises a crRNA-like (“CRISPR RNA” or “targeter-RNA” or “crRNA” or “crRNA repeat”) molecule and a corresponding tracrRNA-like (“trans-acting CRISPR RNA” or “activator-RNA” or “tracrRNA”) molecule.
  • a crRNA-like molecule comprises both the DNA-targeting segment (single stranded) of the DNA-targeting RNA and a stretch (“duplex-forming segment”) of nucleotides that forms one half of the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a corresponding tracrRNA-like molecule comprises a stretch of nucleotides (duplex-forming segment) that forms the other half of the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a stretch of nucleotides of a crRNA-like molecule are complementary to and hybridize with a stretch of nucleotides of a tracrRNA-like molecule to form the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding domain of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • each crRNA-like molecule can be said to have a corresponding tracrRNA-like molecule.
  • the crRNA-like molecule additionally provides the single stranded DNA-targeting segment.
  • a crRNA-like and a tracrRNA-like molecule hybridize to form a DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the exact sequence of a given crRNA or tracrRNA molecule is characteristic of the species in which the RNA molecules are found.
  • activator-RNA is used herein to mean a tracrRNA-like molecule of a double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA.
  • targeter-RNA is used herein to mean a crRNA-like molecule of a double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA.
  • duplex-forming segment is used herein to mean the stretch of nucleotides of an activator-RNA or a targeter-RNA that contributes to the formation of the dsRNA duplex by hybridizing to a stretch of nucleotides of a corresponding activator-RNA or targeter-RNA molecule.
  • an activator-RNA comprises a duplex-forming segment that is complementary to the duplex-forming segment of the corresponding targeter-RNA.
  • an activator-RNA comprises a duplex-forming segment while a targeter-RNA comprises both a duplex-forming segment and the DNA-targeting segment of the DNA-targeting RNA. Therefore, a subject double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can be comprised of any corresponding activator-RNA and targeter-RNA pair.
  • a two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can be designed to allow for controlled (i.e., conditional) binding of a targeter-RNA with an activator-RNA. Because a two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA is not functional unless both the activator-RNA and the targeter-RNA are bound in a functional complex with dCas9, a two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can be inducible (e.g., drug inducible) by rendering the binding between the activator-RNA and the targeter-RNA to be inducible.
  • RNA aptamers can be used to regulate (i.e., control) the binding of the activator-RNA with the targeter-RNA. Accordingly, the activator-RNA and/or the targeter-RNA can comprise an RNA aptamer sequence.
  • RNA aptamers are known in the art and are generally a synthetic version of a riboswitch.
  • the terms “RNA aptamer” and “riboswitch” are used interchangeably herein to encompass both synthetic and natural nucleic acid sequences that provide for inducible regulation of the structure (and therefore the availability of specific sequences) of the RNA molecule of which they are part.
  • RNA aptamers usually comprise a sequence that folds into a particular structure (e.g., a hairpin), which specifically binds a particular drug (e.g., a small molecule). Binding of the drug causes a structural change in the folding of the RNA, which changes a feature of the nucleic acid of which the aptamer is a part.
  • an activator-RNA with an aptamer may not be able to bind to the cognate targeter-RNA unless the aptamer is bound by the appropriate drug;
  • a targeter-RNA with an aptamer may not be able to bind to the cognate activator-RNA unless the aptamer is bound by the appropriate drug;
  • a targeter-RNA and an activator-RNA, each comprising a different aptamer that binds a different drug may not be able to bind to each other unless both drugs are present.
  • a two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA can be designed to be inducible.
  • aptamers and riboswitches can be found, for example, in: Nakamura et al., Genes Cells. 2012 May; 17(5):344-64; Vavalle et al., Future Cardiol. 2012 May; 8(3):371-82; Citartan et al., Biosens Bioelectron. 2012 Apr. 15; 34(1):1-11; and Liberman et al., Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2012 May-June; 3(3):369-84; all of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.
  • Non-limiting examples of nucleotide sequences that can be included in a two-molecule DNA-targeting RNA include targeter RNAs (e.g., SEQ ID NOs:566-567) that can pair with the duplex forming segment of any one of the activator RNAs set forth in SEQ ID NOs:671-678.
  • An exemplary single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises two complementary stretches of nucleotides that hybridize to form a dsRNA duplex.
  • one of the two complementary stretches of nucleotides of the single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA (or the DNA encoding the stretch) is at least about 60% identical to one of the activator-RNA (tracrRNA) sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562 over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • one of the two complementary stretches of nucleotides of the single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA is at least about 65% identical, at least about 70% identical, at least about 75% identical, at least about 80% identical, at least about 85% identical, at least about 90% identical, at least about 95% identical, at least about 98% identical, at least about 99% identical or 100% identical to one of the tracrRNA sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:431-562 over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • one of the two complementary stretches of nucleotides of the single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA is at least about 60% identical to one of the targeter-RNA (crRNA) sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:563-679 over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • one of the two complementary stretches of nucleotides of the single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA is at least about 65% identical, at least about 70% identical, at least about 75% identical, at least about 80% identical, at least about 85% identical, at least about 90% identical, at least about 95% identical, at least about 98% identical, at least about 99% identical or 100% identical to one of the crRNA sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:563-679 over a stretch of at least 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • a “host cell,” as used herein, denotes an in vivo or in vitro eukaryotic cell, a prokaryotic cell (e.g., bacterial or archaeal cell), or a cell from a multicellular organism (e.g., a cell line) cultured as a unicellular entity, which eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells can be, or have been, used as recipients for a nucleic acid, and include the progeny of the original cell which has been transformed by the nucleic acid. It is understood that the progeny of a single cell may not necessarily be completely identical in morphology or in genomic or total DNA complement as the original parent, due to natural, accidental, or deliberate mutation.
  • a “recombinant host cell” is a host cell into which has been introduced a heterologous nucleic acid, e.g., an expression vector.
  • a subject bacterial host cell is a genetically modified bacterial host cell by virtue of introduction into a suitable bacterial host cell of an exogenous nucleic acid (e.g., a plasmid or recombinant expression vector) and a subject eukaryotic host cell is a genetically modified eukaryotic host cell (e.g., a mammalian germ cell), by virtue of introduction into a suitable eukaryotic host cell of an exogenous nucleic acid.
  • the present disclosure provides methods of modulating transcription of a target nucleic acid in a host cell.
  • the methods generally involve contacting the target nucleic acid with an enzymatically inactive Cas9 polypeptide and a single-guide RNA.
  • the methods are useful in a variety of applications, which are also provided.
  • a transcriptional modulation method of the present disclosure overcomes some of the drawbacks of methods involving RNAi.
  • a transcriptional modulation method of the present disclosure finds use in a wide variety of applications, including research applications, drug discovery (e.g., high throughput screening), target validation, industrial applications (e.g., crop engineering; microbial engineering, etc.), diagnostic applications, therapeutic applications, and imaging techniques.
  • the present disclosure provides a method of selectively modulating transcription of a target DNA in a host cell.
  • the method generally involves: a) introducing into the host cell: i) a DNA-targeting RNA, or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the DNA-targeting RNA; and ii) a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide (“variant Cas9 polypeptide”), or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the variant Cas9 polypeptide, where the variant Cas9 polypeptide exhibits reduced endodeoxyribonuclease activity.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA (also referred to herein as “crRNA”; or “guide RNA”; or “gRNA”) comprises: i) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a target sequence in a target DNA; ii) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed polypeptide; and iii) a transcriptional terminator.
  • the first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a target sequence in a target DNA, is referred to herein as a “targeting segment”.
  • the second segment which interacts with a site-directed polypeptide, is also referred to herein as a “protein-binding sequence” or “dCas9-binding hairpin,” or “dCas9 handle.”
  • segment it is meant a segment/section/region of a molecule, e.g., a contiguous stretch of nucleotides in an RNA.
  • the definition of “segment,” unless otherwise specifically defined in a particular context, is not limited to a specific number of total base pairs, and may include regions of RNA molecules that are of any total length and may or may not include regions with complementarity to other molecules.
  • a DNA-targeting RNA according to the present disclosure can be a single RNA molecule (single RNA polynucleotide), which can be referred to herein as a “single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA,” a “single-guide RNA,” or an “sgRNA.”
  • a DNA-targeting RNA according to the present disclosure can comprise two RNA molecules.
  • the term “DNA-targeting RNA” or “gRNA” is inclusive, referring both to two-molecule DNA-targeting RNAs and to single-molecule DNA-targeting RNAs (i.e., sgRNAs).
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide comprises: i) an RNA-binding portion that interacts with the DNA-targeting RNA; and ii) an activity portion that exhibits reduced endodeoxyribonuclease activity.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA and the variant Cas9 polypeptide form a complex in the host cell; the complex selectively modulates transcription of a target DNA in the host cell.
  • a transcription modulation method of the present disclosure provides for selective modulation (e.g., reduction or increase) of a target nucleic acid in a host cell.
  • selective modulation e.g., reduction or increase
  • “selective” reduction of transcription of a target nucleic acid reduces transcription of the target nucleic acid by at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, or greater than 90%, compared to the level of transcription of the target nucleic acid in the absence of a DNA-targeting RNA/variant Cas9 polypeptide complex.
  • Selective reduction of transcription of a target nucleic acid reduces transcription of the target nucleic acid, but does not substantially reduce transcription of a non-target nucleic acid, e.g., transcription of a non-target nucleic acid is reduced, if at all, by less than 10% compared to the level of transcription of the non-target nucleic acid in the absence of the DNA-targeting RNA/variant Cas9 polypeptide complex.
  • “Selective” increased transcription of a target DNA can increase transcription of the target DNA by at least about 1.1 fold (e.g., at least about 1.2 fold, at least about 1.3 fold, at least about 1.4 fold, at least about 1.5 fold, at least about 1.6 fold, at least about 1.7 fold, at least about 1.8 fold, at least about 1.9 fold, at least about 2 fold, at least about 2.5 fold, at least about 3 fold, at least about 3.5 fold, at least about 4 fold, at least about 4.5 fold, at least about 5 fold, at least about 6 fold, at least about 7 fold, at least about 8 fold, at least about 9 fold, at least about 10 fold, at least about 12 fold, at least about 15 fold, or at least about 20-fold) compared to the level of transcription of the target DNA in the absence of a DNA-targeting RNA/variant Cas9 polypeptide complex.
  • Selective increase of transcription of a target DNA increases transcription of the target DNA, but does not substantially increase transcription of a non-target DNA, e.g., transcription of a non-target DNA is increased, if at all, by less than about 5-fold (e.g., less than about 4-fold, less than about 3-fold, less than about 2-fold, less than about 1.8-fold, less than about 1.6-fold, less than about 1.4-fold, less than about 1.2-fold, or less than about 1.1-fold) compared to the level of transcription of the non-targeted DNA in the absence of the DNA-targeting RNA/variant Cas9 polypeptide complex.
  • less than about 5-fold e.g., less than about 4-fold, less than about 3-fold, less than about 2-fold, less than about 1.8-fold, less than about 1.6-fold, less than about 1.4-fold, less than about 1.2-fold, or less than about 1.1-fold
  • Suitable fusion partners include, but are not limited to, a polypeptide that provides an activity that indirectly increases transcription by acting directly on the target DNA or on a polypeptide (e.g., a histone or other DNA-binding protein) associated with the target DNA.
  • Suitable fusion partners include, but are not limited to, a polypeptide that provides for methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity, deubiquitinating activity, adenylation activity, deadenylation activity, SUMOylating activity, deSUMOylating activity, ribosylation activity, deribosylation activity, myristoylation activity, or demyristoylation activity.
  • Additional suitable fusion partners include, but are not limited to, a polypeptide that directly provides for increased transcription of the target nucleic acid (e.g., a transcription activator or a fragment thereof, a protein or fragment thereof that recruits a transcription activator, a small molecule/drug-responsive transcription regulator, etc.).
  • a polypeptide that directly provides for increased transcription of the target nucleic acid e.g., a transcription activator or a fragment thereof, a protein or fragment thereof that recruits a transcription activator, a small molecule/drug-responsive transcription regulator, etc.
  • a non-limiting example of a subject method using a dCas9 fusion protein to increase transcription in a prokaryote includes a modification of the bacterial one-hybrid (B1H) or two-hybrid (B2H) system.
  • B1H bacterial one-hybrid
  • B2H two-hybrid
  • AD bacterial transcription activation domain
  • a subject dCas9 can be fused to a heterologous sequence comprising an AD.
  • the AD e.g., RNAP ⁇
  • the BD is not directly fused to the AD; instead, their interaction is mediated by a protein-protein interaction (e.g., GAL11P-GAL4 interaction).
  • dCas9 can be fused to a first protein sequence that provides for protein-protein interaction (e.g., the yeast GAL11P and/or GAL4 protein) and RNA ⁇ can be fused to a second protein sequence that completes the protein-protein interaction (e.g., GAL4 if GAL11P is fused to dCas9, GAL11P if GAL4 is fused to dCas9, etc.).
  • the binding affinity between GAL11P and GAL4 increases the efficiency of binding and transcription firing rate.
  • a non-limiting example of a subject method using a dCas9 fusion protein to increase transcription in a eukaryotes includes fusion of dCas9 to an activation domain (AD) (e.g., GAL4, herpesvirus activation protein VP16 or VP64, human nuclear factor NF- ⁇ B p65 subunit, etc.).
  • AD activation domain
  • expression of the dCas9 fusion protein can be controlled by an inducible promoter (e.g., Tet-ON, Tet-OFF, etc.).
  • the DNA-targeting RNA can be design to target known transcription response elements (e.g., promoters, enhancers, etc.), known upstream activating sequences (UAS), sequences of unknown or known function that are suspected of being able to control expression of the target DNA, etc.
  • known transcription response elements e.g., promoters, enhancers, etc.
  • UAS upstream activating sequences
  • sequences of unknown or known function that are suspected of being able to control expression of the target DNA, etc.
  • Non-limiting examples of fusion partners to accomplish increased or decreased transcription are listed in FIG. 54 and include transcription activator and transcription repressor domains (e.g., the Krüppel associated box (KRAB or SKD); the Mad mSIN3 interaction domain (SID); the ERF repressor domain (ERD), etc).
  • transcription activator and transcription repressor domains e.g., the Krüppel associated box (KRAB or SKD); the Mad mSIN3 interaction domain (SID); the ERF repressor domain (ERD), etc.
  • the dCas9 fusion protein is targeted by the DNA-targeting RNA to a specific location (i.e., sequence) in the target DNA and exerts locus-specific regulation such as blocking RNA polymerase binding to a promoter (which selectively inhibits transcription activator function), and/or modifying the local chromatin status (e.g., when a fusion sequence is used that modifies the target DNA or modifies a polypeptide associated with the target DNA).
  • the changes are transient (e.g., transcription repression or activation).
  • the changes are inheritable (e.g., when epigenetic modifications are made to the target DNA or to proteins associated with the target DNA, e.g., nucleosomal histones).
  • the heterologous sequence can be fused to the C-terminus of the dCas9 polypeptide. In some embodiments, the heterologous sequence can be fused to the N-terminus of the dCas9 polypeptide. In some embodiments, the heterologous sequence can be fused to an internal portion (i.e., a portion other than the N- or C-terminus) of the dCas9 polypeptide.
  • the biological effects of a method using a subject dCas9 fusion protein can be detected by any convenient method (e.g., gene expression assays; chromatin-based assays, e.g., Chromatin immunoPrecipitation (ChiP), Chromatin in vivo Assay (CiA), etc.; and the like).
  • any convenient method e.g., gene expression assays; chromatin-based assays, e.g., Chromatin immunoPrecipitation (ChiP), Chromatin in vivo Assay (CiA), etc.; and the like).
  • a subject method involves use of two or more different DNA-targeting RNAs.
  • two different DNA-targeting RNAs can be used in a single host cell, where the two different DNA-targeting RNAs target two different target sequences in the same target nucleic acid.
  • a subject transcriptional modulation method can further comprise introducing into the host cell a second DNA-targeting RNA, or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the second DNA-targeting RNA, where the second DNA-targeting RNA comprises: i) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a second target sequence in the target DNA; ii) a second segment that interacts with the site-directed polypeptide; and iii) a transcriptional terminator.
  • use of two different DNA-targeting RNAs targeting two different targeting sequences in the same target nucleic acid provides for increased modulation (e.g., reduction or increase) in transcription of the target nucleic acid.
  • a subject transcriptional modulation method can further comprise introducing into the host cell a second DNA-targeting RNA, or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the second DNA-targeting RNA, where the second DNA-targeting RNA comprises: i) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a target sequence in at least a second target DNA; ii) a second segment that interacts with the site-directed polypeptide; and iii) a transcriptional terminator.
  • a subject nucleic acid e.g., a DNA-targeting RNA, e.g., a single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA, an activator-RNA, a targeter-RNA, etc.; a donor polynucleotide; a nucleic acid encoding a site-directed modifying polypeptide; etc.
  • a modification or sequence that provides for an additional desirable feature (e.g., modified or regulated stability; subcellular targeting; tracking, e.g., a fluorescent label; a binding site for a protein or protein complex; etc.).
  • Non-limiting examples include: a 5′ cap (e.g., a 7-methylguanylate cap (m 7 G)); a 3′ polyadenylated tail (i.e., a 3′ poly(A) tail); a riboswitch sequence or an aptamer sequence (e.g., to allow for regulated stability and/or regulated accessibility by proteins and/or protein complexes); a terminator sequence; a sequence that forms a dsRNA duplex (i.e., a hairpin)); a modification or sequence that targets the RNA to a subcellular location (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the like); a modification or sequence that provides for tracking (e.g., direct conjugation to a fluorescent molecule, conjugation to a moiety that facilitates fluorescent detection, a sequence that allows for fluorescent detection, etc.); a modification or sequence that provides a binding site for proteins (e.g., proteins that act on DNA, including transcriptional activators, transcriptional
  • the DNA-targeting segment (or “DNA-targeting sequence”) of a DNA-targeting RNA (“crRNA”) comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a specific sequence within a target DNA (the complementary strand of the target DNA).
  • the DNA-targeting segment of a subject DNA-targeting RNA interacts with a target DNA in a sequence-specific manner via hybridization (i.e., base pairing).
  • the nucleotide sequence of the DNA-targeting segment may vary and determines the location within the target DNA that the DNA-targeting RNA and the target DNA will interact.
  • the DNA-targeting segment of a subject DNA-targeting RNA can be modified (e.g., by genetic engineering) to hybridize to any desired sequence within a target DNA.
  • the DNA-targeting segment can have a length of from about 12 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides.
  • the DNA-targeting segment can have a length of from about 12 nucleotides (nt) to about 80 nt, from about 12 nt to about 50 nt, from about 12 nt to about 40 nt, from about 12 nt to about 30 nt, from about 12 nt to about 25 nt, from about 12 nt to about 20 nt, or from about 12 nt to about 19 nt.
  • the DNA-targeting segment can have a length of from about 19 nt to about 20 nt, from about 19 nt to about 25 nt, from about 19 nt to about 30 nt, from about 19 nt to about 35 nt, from about 19 nt to about 40 nt, from about 19 nt to about 45 nt, from about 19 nt to about 50 nt, from about 19 nt to about 60 nt, from about 19 nt to about 70 nt, from about 19 nt to about 80 nt, from about 19 nt to about 90 nt, from about 19 nt to about 100 nt, from about 20 nt to about 25 nt, from about 20 nt to about 30 nt, from about 20 nt to about 35 nt, from about 20 nt to about 40 nt, from about 20 nt to about 45 nt, from about 20 nt to about 50 nt, from about 20 nt,
  • the nucleotide sequence (the DNA-targeting sequence) of the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a nucleotide sequence (target sequence) of the target DNA can have a length at least about 12 nt.
  • the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a target sequence of the target DNA can have a length at least about 12 nt, at least about 15 nt, at least about 18 nt, at least about 19 nt, at least about 20 nt, at least about 25 nt, at least about 30 nt, at least about 35 nt or at least about 40 nt.
  • the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a target sequence of the target DNA can have a length of from about 12 nucleotides (nt) to about 80 nt, from about 12 nt to about 50 nt, from about 12 nt to about 45 nt, from about 12 nt to about 40 nt, from about 12 nt to about 35 nt, from about 12 nt to about 30 nt, from about 12 nt to about 25 nt, from about 12 nt to about 20 nt, from about 12 nt to about 19 nt, from about 19 nt to about 20 nt, from about 19 nt to about 25 nt, from about 19 nt to about 30 nt, from about 19 nt to about 35 nt, from about 19 nt to about 40 nt, from about 19 nt to about 45 nt, from about 19 nt to about 50 nt, from about 19 nt to
  • the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a target sequence of the target DNA is 20 nucleotides in length. In some cases, the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment that is complementary to a target sequence of the target DNA is 19 nucleotides in length.
  • the percent complementarity between the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment and the target sequence of the target DNA can be at least 60% (e.g., at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100%). In some cases, the percent complementarity between the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment and the target sequence of the target DNA is 100% over the seven contiguous 5′-most nucleotides of the target sequence of the complementary strand of the target DNA.
  • the percent complementarity between the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment and the target sequence of the target DNA is at least 60% over about 20 contiguous nucleotides. In some cases, the percent complementarity between the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment and the target sequence of the target DNA is 100% over the fourteen contiguous 5′-most nucleotides of the target sequence of the complementary strand of the target DNA and as low as 0% over the remainder. In such a case, the DNA-targeting sequence can be considered to be 14 nucleotides in length.
  • the percent complementarity between the DNA-targeting sequence of the DNA-targeting segment and the target sequence of the target DNA is 100% over the seven contiguous 5′-most nucleotides of the target sequence of the complementary strand of the target DNA and as low as 0% over the remainder.
  • the DNA-targeting sequence can be considered to be 7 nucleotides in length.
  • the protein-binding segment (i.e., “protein-binding sequence”) of a DNA-targeting RNA interacts with a variant site-directed polypeptide.
  • protein-binding sequence i.e., “protein-binding sequence”
  • the protein-binding segment of a DNA-targeting RNA comprises two complementary stretches of nucleotides that hybridize to one another to form a double stranded RNA duplex (dsRNA duplex).
  • the protein-binding segment of a DNA-targeting RNA of the present disclosure comprises two stretches of nucleotides (a targeter-RNA and an activator-RNA) that are complementary to one another, are covalently linked by intervening nucleotides (e.g., in the case of a single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA)(“linkers” or “linker nucleotides”), and hybridize to form the double stranded RNA duplex (dsRNA duplex, or “dCas9-binding hairpin”) of the protein-binding segment, thus resulting in a stem-loop structure.
  • This stem-loop structure is shown schematically in FIG. 39A .
  • targeter-RNA and the activator-RNA can be covalently linked via the 3′ end of the targeter-RNA and the 5′ end of the activator-RNA.
  • targeter-RNA and the activator-RNA can be covalently linked via the 5′ end of the targeter-RNA and the 3′ end of the activator-RNA.
  • the protein-binding segment can have a length of from about 10 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides, e.g., from about 10 nucleotides (nt) to about 20 nt, from about 20 nt to about 30 nt, from about 30 nt to about 40 nt, from about 40 nt to about 50 nt, from about 50 nt to about 60 nt, from about 60 nt to about 70 nt, from about 70 nt to about 80 nt, from about 80 nt to about 90 nt, or from about 90 nt to about 100 nt.
  • nt nucleotides
  • the protein-binding segment can have a length of from about 15 nucleotides (nt) to about 80 nt, from about 15 nt to about 50 nt, from about 15 nt to about 40 nt, from about 15 nt to about 30 nt or from about 15 nt to about 25 nt.
  • the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment can have a length from about 6 base pairs (bp) to about 50 bp.
  • the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment can have a length from about 6 bp to about 40 bp, from about 6 bp to about 30 bp, from about 6 bp to about 25 bp, from about 6 bp to about 20 bp, from about 6 bp to about 15 bp, from about 8 bp to about 40 bp, from about 8 bp to about 30 bp, from about 8 bp to about 25 bp, from about 8 bp to about 20 bp or from about 8 bp to about 15 bp.
  • the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment can have a length from about from about 8 bp to about 10 bp, from about 10 bp to about 15 bp, from about 15 bp to about 18 bp, from about 18 bp to about 20 bp, from about 20 bp to about 25 bp, from about 25 bp to about 30 bp, from about 30 bp to about 35 bp, from about 35 bp to about 40 bp, or from about 40 bp to about 50 bp.
  • the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment has a length of 36 base pairs.
  • the percent complementarity between the nucleotide sequences that hybridize to form the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment can be at least about 60%.
  • the percent complementarity between the nucleotide sequences that hybridize to form the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment can be at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, or at least about 99%.
  • the percent complementarity between the nucleotide sequences that hybridize to form the dsRNA duplex of the protein-binding segment is 100%.
  • the linker can have a length of from about 3 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides.
  • the linker can have a length of from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 90 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 80 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 70 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 60 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 50 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 40 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 30 nt, from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 20 nt or from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 10 nt.
  • the linker can have a length of from about 3 nt to about 5 nt, from about 5 nt to about 10 nt, from about 10 nt to about 15 nt, from about 15 nt to about 20 nt, from about 20 nt to about 25 nt, from about 25 nt to about 30 nt, from about 30 nt to about 35 nt, from about 35 nt to about 40 nt, from about 40 nt to about 50 nt, from about 50 nt to about 60 nt, from about 60 nt to about 70 nt, from about 70 nt to about 80 nt, from about 80 nt to about 90 nt, or from about 90 nt to about 100 nt.
  • the linker of a DNA-targeting RNA is 4 nt.
  • Non-limiting examples of nucleotide sequences that can be included in a suitable protein-binding segment are set forth in SEQ ID NOs:563-682 (For examples, see FIG. 8 and FIG. 9 ).
  • a suitable protein-binding segment comprises a nucleotide sequence that differs by 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 nucleotides from any one of the above-listed sequences.
  • Stability Control Sequence e.g., Transcriptional Terminator Segment
  • a stability control sequence influences the stability of an RNA (e.g., a DNA-targeting RNA, a targeter-RNA, an activator-RNA, etc.).
  • RNA e.g., a DNA-targeting RNA, a targeter-RNA, an activator-RNA, etc.
  • a suitable stability control sequence is a transcriptional terminator segment (i.e., a transcription termination sequence).
  • a transcriptional terminator segment of a subject DNA-targeting RNA can have a total length of from about 10 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides, e.g., from about 10 nucleotides (nt) to about 20 nt, from about 20 nt to about 30 nt, from about 30 nt to about 40 nt, from about 40 nt to about 50 nt, from about 50 nt to about 60 nt, from about 60 nt to about 70 nt, from about 70 nt to about 80 nt, from about 80 nt to about 90 nt, or from about 90 nt to about 100 nt.
  • the transcriptional terminator segment can have a length of from about 15 nucleotides (nt) to about 80 nt, from about 15 nt to about 50 nt, from about 15 nt to about 40 nt, from about 15 nt to about 30 nt or from about 15 nt to about 25 nt.
  • the transcription termination sequence is one that is functional in a eukaryotic cell. In some cases, the transcription termination sequence is one that is functional in a prokaryotic cell.
  • Non-limiting examples of nucleotide sequences that can be included in a stability control sequence include sequences set forth in SEQ ID NO:683-696 and, for example,
  • a DNA-targeting RNA comprises at least one additional segment at either the 5′ or 3′ end.
  • a suitable additional segment can comprise a 5′ cap (e.g., a 7-methylguanylate cap (m 7 G)); a 3′ polyadenylated tail (i.e., a 3′ poly(A) tail); a riboswitch sequence (e.g., to allow for regulated stability and/or regulated accessibility by proteins and protein complexes); a sequence that forms a dsRNA duplex (i.e., a hairpin)); a sequence that targets the RNA to a subcellular location (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the like); a modification or sequence that provides for tracking (e.g., direct conjugation to a fluorescent molecule, conjugation to a moiety that facilitates fluorescent detection, a sequence that allows for fluorescent detection, etc.); a modification or sequence that provides a binding site for proteins (e.g.
  • multiple DNA-targeting RNAs are used simultaneously in the same cell to simultaneously modulate transcription at different locations on the same target DNA or on different target DNAs.
  • two or more DNA-targeting RNAs target the same gene or transcript or locus.
  • two or more DNA-targeting RNAs target different unrelated loci.
  • two or more DNA-targeting RNAs target different, but related loci.
  • DNA-targeting RNAs are small and robust they can be simultaneously present on the same expression vector and can even be under the same transcriptional control if so desired.
  • two or more (e.g., 3 or more, 4 or more, 5 or more, 10 or more, 15 or more, 20 or more, 25 or more, 30 or more, 35 or more, 40 or more, 45 or more, or 50 or more) DNA-targeting RNAs are simultaneously expressed in a target cell (from the same or different vectors).
  • the expressed DNA-targeting RNAs can be differently recognized by dCas9 proteins from different bacteria, such as S. pyogenes, S. thermophilus, L. innocua , and N. meningitidis.
  • an artificial RNA processing system mediated by the Csy4 endoribonuclease can be used.
  • Multiple DNA-targeting RNAs can be concatenated into a tandem array on a precursor transcript (e.g., expressed from a U6 promoter), and separated by Csy4-specific RNA sequence.
  • Co-expressed Csy4 protein cleaves the precursor transcript into multiple DNA-targeting RNAs.
  • Advantages for using an RNA processing system include: first, there is no need to use multiple promoters; second, since all DNA-targeting RNAs are processed from a precursor transcript, their concentrations are normalized for similar dCas9-binding.
  • Csy4 is a small endoribonuclease (RNase) protein derived from bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa .
  • RNase Ribonuclease
  • Csy4 specifically recognizes a minimal 17-bp RNA hairpin, and exhibits rapid ( ⁇ 1 min) and highly efficient (>99.9%) RNA cleavage Unlike most RNases, the cleaved RNA fragment remains stable and functionally active.
  • the Csy4-based RNA cleavage can be repurposed into an artificial RNA processing system. In this system, the 17-bp RNA hairpins are inserted between multiple RNA fragments that are transcribed as a precursor transcript from a single promoter. Co-expression of Csy4 is effective in generating individual RNA fragments.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA and a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide form a complex.
  • the DNA-targeting RNA provides target specificity to the complex by comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence of a target DNA.
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide has reduced endodeoxyribonuclease activity.
  • a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide suitable for use in a transcription modulation method of the present disclosure exhibits less than about 20%, less than about 15%, less than about 10%, less than about 5%, less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, of the endodeoxyribonuclease activity of a wild-type Cas9 polypeptide, e.g., a wild-type Cas9 polypeptide comprising an amino acid sequence as depicted in FIG. 3 (SEQ ID NO:8).
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide has substantially no detectable endodeoxyribonuclease activity.
  • a site-directed polypeptide has reduced catalytic activity (e.g., when a Cas9 protein has a D10, G12, G17, E762, H840, N854, N863, H982, H983, A984, D986, and/or a A987 mutation, e.g., D10A, G12A, G17A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A, H982A, H983A, A984A, and/or D986A), the polypeptide can still bind to target DNA in a site-specific manner (because it is still guided to a target DNA sequence by a DNA-targeting RNA) as long as it retains the ability to interact with the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the polypeptide can still bind to target DNA in a site-specific manner (because it is still guided to a target DNA sequence by a DNA-targeting RNA) as long as it retains the ability to interact with the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a suitable variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99% or 100% amino acid sequence identity to amino acids 7-166 or 731-1003 of the Cas9/Csn1 amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 (SEQ ID NO:8), or to the corresponding portions in any one of the amino acid sequences SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346.
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide can cleave the complementary strand of the target DNA but has reduced ability to cleave the non-complementary strand of the target DNA.
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide can have a mutation (amino acid substitution) that reduces the function of the RuvC domain (e.g., “domain 1” of FIG. 3 ).
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide is a D10A (aspartate to alanine) mutation of the amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 (or the corresponding mutation of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346).
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide can cleave the non-complementary strand of the target DNA but has reduced ability to cleave the complementary strand of the target DNA.
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide can have a mutation (amino acid substitution) that reduces the function of the HNH domain (RuvC/HNH/RuvC domain motifs, “domain 2” of FIG. 3 ).
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide is a H840A (histidine to alanine at amino acid position 840 of SEQ ID NO:8) or the corresponding mutation of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346).
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide has a reduced ability to cleave both the complementary and the non-complementary strands of the target DNA.
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide harbors both D10A and H840A mutations of the amino acid sequence depicted in FIG. 3 (or the corresponding mutations of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:1-256 and 795-1346).
  • residues D10, G12, G17, E762, H840, N854, N863, H982, H983, A984, D986, and/or A987 can be altered (i.e., substituted) (see FIG. 3 , FIG. 5 , FIG. 11A , and Table 1 for more information regarding the conservation of Cas9 amino acid residues). Also, mutations other than alanine substitutions are suitable.
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide is a fusion polypeptide (a “variant Cas9 fusion polypeptide”), i.e., a fusion polypeptide comprising: i) a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide; and b) a covalently linked heterologous polypeptide (also referred to as a “fusion partner”).
  • variant Cas9 fusion polypeptide a fusion polypeptide
  • a fusion polypeptide comprising: i) a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide; and b) a covalently linked heterologous polypeptide (also referred to as a “fusion partner”).
  • the heterologous polypeptide may exhibit an activity (e.g., enzymatic activity) that will also be exhibited by the variant Cas9 fusion polypeptide (e.g., methyltransferase activity, acetyltransferase activity, kinase activity, ubiquitinating activity, etc.).
  • a heterologous nucleic acid sequence may be linked to another nucleic acid sequence (e.g., by genetic engineering) to generate a chimeric nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric polypeptide.
  • a variant Cas9 fusion polypeptide is generated by fusing a variant Cas9 polypeptide with a heterologous sequence that provides for subcellular localization (i.e., the heterologous sequence is a subcellular localization sequence, e.g., a nuclear localization signal (NLS) for targeting to the nucleus; a mitochondrial localization signal for targeting to the mitochondria; a chloroplast localization signal for targeting to a chloroplast; an ER retention signal; and the like).
  • a subcellular localization sequence e.g., a nuclear localization signal (NLS) for targeting to the nucleus; a mitochondrial localization signal for targeting to the mitochondria; a chloroplast localization signal for targeting to a chloroplast; an ER retention signal; and the like.
  • the heterologous sequence can provide a tag (i.e., the heterologous sequence is a detectable label) for ease of tracking and/or purification (e.g., a fluorescent protein, e.g., green fluorescent protein (GFP), YFP, RFP, CFP, mCherry, tdTomato, and the like; a histidine tag, e.g., a 6 ⁇ His tag; a hemagglutinin (HA) tag; a FLAG tag; a Myc tag; and the like).
  • a fluorescent protein e.g., green fluorescent protein (GFP), YFP, RFP, CFP, mCherry, tdTomato, and the like
  • GFP green fluorescent protein
  • YFP green fluorescent protein
  • RFP red fluorescent protein
  • CFP CFP
  • mCherry mCherry
  • tdTomato e.g., a histidine tag
  • HA hemagglutinin
  • the heterologous sequence can provide for increased or decreased stability (i.e., the heterologous sequence is a stability control peptide, e.g., a degron, which in some cases is controllable (e.g., a temperature sensitive or drug controllable degron sequence, see below).
  • a stability control peptide e.g., a degron
  • controllable e.g., a temperature sensitive or drug controllable degron sequence, see below.
  • the heterologous sequence can provide for increased or decreased transcription from the target DNA (i.e., the heterologous sequence is a transcription modulation sequence, e.g., a transcription factor/activator or a fragment thereof, a protein or fragment thereof that recruits a transcription factor/activator, a transcription repressor or a fragment thereof, a protein or fragment thereof that recruits a transcription repressor, a small molecule/drug-responsive transcription regulator, etc.).
  • a transcription modulation sequence e.g., a transcription factor/activator or a fragment thereof, a protein or fragment thereof that recruits a transcription factor/activator, a transcription repressor or a fragment thereof, a protein or fragment thereof that recruits a transcription repressor, a small molecule/drug-responsive transcription regulator, etc.
  • the heterologous sequence can provide a binding domain (i.e., the heterologous sequence is a protein binding sequence, e.g., to provide the ability of a chimeric dCas9 polypeptide to bind to another protein of interest, e.g., a DNA or histone modifying protein, a transcription factor or transcription repressor, a recruiting protein, etc.).
  • a protein binding sequence e.g., to provide the ability of a chimeric dCas9 polypeptide to bind to another protein of interest, e.g., a DNA or histone modifying protein, a transcription factor or transcription repressor, a recruiting protein, etc.
  • Suitable fusion partners that provide for increased or decreased stability include, but are not limited to degron sequences.
  • Degrons are readily understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to be amino acid sequences that control the stability of the protein of which they are part. For example, the stability of a protein comprising a degron sequence is controlled at least in part by the degron sequence.
  • a suitable degron is constitutive such that the degron exerts its influence on protein stability independent of experimental control (i.e., the degron is not drug inducible, temperature inducible, etc.)
  • the degron provides the variant Cas9 polypeptide with controllable stability such that the variant Cas9 polypeptide can be turned “on” (i.e., stable) or “off” (i.e., unstable, degraded) depending on the desired conditions.
  • the variant Cas9 polypeptide may be functional (i.e., “on”, stable) below a threshold temperature (e.g., 42° C., 41° C., 40° C., 39° C., 38° C., 37° C., 36° C., 35° C., 34° C., 33° C., 32° C., 31° C., 30° C., etc.) but non-functional (i.e., “off”, degraded) above the threshold temperature.
  • a threshold temperature e.g., 42° C., 41° C., 40° C., 39° C., 38° C., 37° C., 36° C., 35° C., 34° C., 33° C., 32° C., 31° C., 30° C., etc.
  • non-functional i.e., “off”, degraded
  • the degron is a drug inducible degron
  • the presence or absence of drug can switch the protein from an “off” (i.e., unstable) state to an “on” (i.e., stable) state or vice versa.
  • An exemplary drug inducible degron is derived from the FKBP12 protein. The stability of the degron is controlled by the presence or absence of a small molecule that binds to the degron.
  • suitable degrons include, but are not limited to those degrons controlled by Shield-1, DHFR, auxins, and/or temperature.
  • suitable degrons are known in the art (e.g., Dohmen et al., Science, 1994. 263(5151): p. 1273-1276: Heat-inducible degron: a method for constructing temperature-sensitive mutants; Schoeber et al., Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2009 January; 296(1):F204-11: Conditional fast expression and function of multimeric TRPV5 channels using Shield-1; Chu et al., Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2008 Nov.
  • dCas9 fusion protein can comprise a YFP sequence for detection, a degron sequence for stability, and transcription activator sequence to increase transcription of the target DNA.
  • a dCas9 fusion protein comprises one or more (e.g. two or more, three or more, four or more, or five or more) heterologous sequences.
  • Suitable fusion partners include, but are not limited to, a polypeptide that provides for methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase activity, ubiquitin ligase activity, deubiquitinating activity, adenylation activity, deadenylation activity, SUMOylating activity, deSUMOylating activity, ribosylation activity, deribosylation activity, myristoylation activity, or demyristoylation activity, any of which can be directed at modifying the DNA directly (e.g., methylation of DNA) or at modifying a DNA-associated polypeptide (e.g., a histone or DNA binding protein).
  • a polypeptide that provides for methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltransferase activity, deacetylase activity, kinase activity, phosphatase
  • fusion partners include, but are not limited to boundary elements (e.g., CTCF), proteins and fragments thereof that provide periphery recruitment (e.g., Lamin A, Lamin B, etc.), and protein docking elements (e.g., FKBP/FRB, Pi11/Aby1, etc.).
  • boundary elements e.g., CTCF
  • proteins and fragments thereof that provide periphery recruitment e.g., Lamin A, Lamin B, etc.
  • protein docking elements e.g., FKBP/FRB, Pi11/Aby1, etc.
  • Examples of various additional suitable fusion partners (or fragments thereof) for a subject variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide include, but are not limited to those listed in FIG. 54 .
  • a subject site-directed modifying polypeptide can be codon-optimized. This type of optimization is known in the art and entails the mutation of foreign-derived DNA to mimic the codon preferences of the intended host organism or cell while encoding the same protein. Thus, the codons are changed, but the encoded protein remains unchanged. For example, if the intended target cell was a human cell, a human codon-optimized dCas9 (or dCas9 variant) would be a suitable site-directed modifying polypeptide.
  • a mouse codon-optimized Cas9 or variant, e.g., enzymatically inactive variant
  • a suitable Cas9 site-directed polypeptide While codon optimization is not required, it is acceptable and may be preferable in certain cases.
  • a method of the present disclosure to modulate transcription may be employed to induce transcriptional modulation in mitotic or post-mitotic cells in vivo and/or ex vivo and/or in vitro.
  • a mitotic and/or post-mitotic cell can be any of a variety of host cell, where suitable host cells include, but are not limited to, a bacterial cell; an archaeal cell; a single-celled eukaryotic organism; a plant cell; an algal cell, e.g., Botryococcus braunii, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Nannochloropsis gaditana, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Sargassum patens, C.
  • a fungal cell e.g., an insect, a cnidarian, an echinoderm, a nematode, etc.
  • a eukaryotic parasite e.g., a malarial parasite, e.g., Plasmodium falciparum ; a helminth; etc.
  • a cell from a vertebrate animal e.g., fish, amphibian, reptile, bird, mammal
  • a mammalian cell e.g., a rodent cell, a human cell, a non-human primate cell, etc.
  • Suitable host cells include naturally-occurring cells; genetically modified cells (e.g., cells genetically modified in a laboratory, e.g., by the “hand of man”); and cells manipulated in vitro in any way. In some cases, a host cell is isolated.
  • a stem cell e.g. an embryonic stem (ES) cell, an induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell, a germ cell; a somatic cell, e.g. a fibroblast, a hematopoietic cell, a neuron, a muscle cell, a bone cell, a hepatocyte, a pancreatic cell; an in vitro or in vivo embryonic cell of an embryo at any stage, e.g., a 1-cell, 2-cell, 4-cell, 8-cell, etc. stage zebrafish embryo; etc.).
  • ES embryonic stem
  • iPS induced pluripotent stem
  • a germ cell e.g. a somatic cell, e.g. a fibroblast, a hematopoietic cell, a neuron, a muscle cell, a bone cell, a hepatocyte, a pancreatic cell
  • an in vitro or in vivo embryonic cell of an embryo at any stage e
  • Cells may be from established cell lines or they may be primary cells, where “primary cells”, “primary cell lines”, and “primary cultures” are used interchangeably herein to refer to cells and cells cultures that have been derived from a subject and allowed to grow in vitro for a limited number of passages, i.e. splittings, of the culture.
  • primary cultures include cultures that may have been passaged 0 times, 1 time, 2 times, 4 times, 5 times, 10 times, or 15 times, but not enough times go through the crisis stage.
  • Primary cell lines can be are maintained for fewer than 10 passages in vitro.
  • Target cells are in many embodiments unicellular organisms, or are grown in culture.
  • the cells may be harvest from an individual by any convenient method.
  • leukocytes may be conveniently harvested by apheresis, leukocytapheresis, density gradient separation, etc., while cells from tissues such as skin, muscle, bone marrow, spleen, liver, pancreas, lung, intestine, stomach, etc. are most conveniently harvested by biopsy.
  • An appropriate solution may be used for dispersion or suspension of the harvested cells.
  • Such solution will generally be a balanced salt solution, e.g.
  • fetal calf serum or other naturally occurring factors, in conjunction with an acceptable buffer at low concentration, e.g., from 5-25 mM.
  • Convenient buffers include HEPES, phosphate buffers, lactate buffers, etc.
  • the cells may be used immediately, or they may be stored, frozen, for long periods of time, being thawed and capable of being reused.
  • the cells will usually be frozen in 10% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), 50% serum, 40% buffered medium, or some other such solution as is commonly used in the art to preserve cells at such freezing temperatures, and thawed in a manner as commonly known in the art for thawing frozen cultured cells.
  • DMSO dimethyl sulfoxide
  • a DNA-targeting RNA, or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding same can be introduced into a host cell by any of a variety of well-known methods.
  • a subject method involves introducing into a host cell a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide, such a nucleic acid can be introduced into a host cell by any of a variety of well-known methods.
  • nucleic acid e.g., an expression construct
  • Suitable methods include, include e.g., viral or bacteriophage infection, transfection, conjugation, protoplast fusion, lipofection, electroporation, calcium phosphate precipitation, polyethyleneimine (PEI)-mediated transfection, DEAE-dextran mediated transfection, liposome-mediated transfection, particle gun technology, calcium phosphate precipitation, direct micro injection, nanoparticle-mediated nucleic acid delivery (see, e.g., Panyam et., al Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2012 Sep. 13. pii: S0169-409X(12)00283-9. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.09.023), and the like.
  • PKI polyethyleneimine
  • the present disclosure provides an isolated nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a subject DNA-targeting RNA.
  • a subject nucleic acid also comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide.
  • a subject method involves introducing into a host cell (or a population of host cells) one or more nucleic acids comprising nucleotide sequences encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide.
  • a cell comprising a target DNA is in vitro.
  • a cell comprising a target DNA is in vivo.
  • Suitable nucleic acids comprising nucleotide sequences encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed polypeptide include expression vectors, where an expression vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a site-directed polypeptide is a “recombinant expression vector.”
  • the recombinant expression vector is a viral construct, e.g., a recombinant adeno-associated virus construct (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,078,387), a recombinant adenoviral construct, a recombinant lentiviral construct, a recombinant retroviral construct, etc.
  • a viral construct e.g., a recombinant adeno-associated virus construct (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,078,387), a recombinant adenoviral construct, a recombinant lentiviral construct, a recombinant retroviral construct, etc.
  • Suitable expression vectors include, but are not limited to, viral vectors (e.g. viral vectors based on vaccinia virus; poliovirus; adenovirus (see, e.g., Li et al., Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 35:2543 2549, 1994; Borras et al., Gene Ther 6:515 524, 1999; Li and Davidson, PNAS 92:7700 7704, 1995; Sakamoto et al., H Gene Ther 5:1088 1097, 1999; WO 94/12649, WO 93/03769; WO 93/19191; WO 94/28938; WO 95/11984 and WO 95/00655); adeno-associated virus (see, e.g., Ali et al., Hum Gene Ther 9:81 86, 1998, Flannery et al., PNAS 94:6916 6921, 1997; Bennett et al., Invest Opthalmol Vis
  • SV40 herpes simplex virus
  • human immunodeficiency virus see, e.g., Miyoshi et al., PNAS 94:10319 23, 1997; Takahashi et al., J Virol 73:7812 7816, 1999
  • a retroviral vector e.g., Murine Leukemia Virus, spleen necrosis virus, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous Sarcoma Virus, Harvey Sarcoma Virus, avian leukosis virus, a lentivirus, human immunodeficiency virus, myeloproliferative sarcoma virus, and mammary tumor virus
  • retroviral vector e.g., Murine Leukemia Virus, spleen necrosis virus, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous Sarcoma Virus, Harvey Sarcoma Virus, avian leukosis virus, a lentivirus, human immunodeficiency virus, myelop
  • Suitable expression vectors are known to those of skill in the art, and many are commercially available.
  • the following vectors are provided by way of example; for eukaryotic host cells: pXT1, pSG5 (Stratagene), pSVK3, pBPV, pMSG, and pSVLSV40 (Pharmacia).
  • any other vector may be used so long as it is compatible with the host cell.
  • any of a number of suitable transcription and translation control elements including constitutive and inducible promoters, transcription enhancer elements, transcription terminators, etc. may be used in the expression vector (see e.g., Bitter et al. (1987) Methods in Enzymology, 153:516-544).
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide is operably linked to a control element, e.g., a transcriptional control element, such as a promoter.
  • a control element e.g., a transcriptional control element, such as a promoter.
  • the transcriptional control element may be functional in either a eukaryotic cell, e.g., a mammalian cell; or a prokaryotic cell (e.g., bacterial or archaeal cell).
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide is operably linked to multiple control elements that allow expression of the nucleotide sequence encoding a DNA-targeting RNA and/or a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
  • a promoter can be a constitutively active promoter (i.e., a promoter that is constitutively in an active/“ON” state), it may be an inducible promoter (i.e., a promoter whose state, active/“ON” or inactive/“OFF”, is controlled by an external stimulus, e.g., the presence of a particular temperature, compound, or protein.), it may be a spatially restricted promoter (i.e., transcriptional control element, enhancer, etc.)(e.g., tissue specific promoter, cell type specific promoter, etc.), and it may be a temporally restricted promoter (i.e., the promoter is in the “ON” state or “OFF” state during specific stages of embryonic development or during specific stages of a biological process, e.g., hair follicle cycle in mice).
  • a constitutively active promoter i.e., a promoter that is constitutively in an active/“ON” state
  • it may be an inducible promote
  • Suitable promoters can be derived from viruses and can therefore be referred to as viral promoters, or they can be derived from any organism, including prokaryotic or eukaryotic organisms. Suitable promoters can be used to drive expression by any RNA polymerase (e.g., pol I, pol II, pol III).
  • RNA polymerase e.g., pol I, pol II, pol III
  • Exemplary promoters include, but are not limited to the SV40 early promoter, mouse mammary tumor virus long terminal repeat (LTR) promoter; adenovirus major late promoter (Ad MLP); a herpes simplex virus (HSV) promoter, a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter such as the CMV immediate early promoter region (CMVIE), a rous sarcoma virus (RSV) promoter, a human U6 small nuclear promoter (U6) (Miyagishi et al., Nature Biotechnology 20, 497-500 (2002)), an enhanced U6 promoter (e.g., Xia et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 2003 Sep. 1; 31(17)), a human H1 promoter (H1), and the like.
  • LTR mouse mammary tumor virus long terminal repeat
  • Ad MLP adenovirus major late promoter
  • HSV herpes simplex virus
  • CMV cytomegalovirus
  • CMVIE C
  • inducible promoters include, but are not limited to T7 RNA polymerase promoter, T3 RNA polymerase promoter, Isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)-regulated promoter, lactose induced promoter, heat shock promoter, Tetracycline-regulated promoter (e.g., Tet-ON, Tet-OFF, etc.), Steroid-regulated promoter, Metal-regulated promoter, estrogen receptor-regulated promoter, etc.
  • Inducible promoters can therefore be regulated by molecules including, but not limited to, doxycycline; RNA polymerase, e.g., T7 RNA polymerase; an estrogen receptor; an estrogen receptor fusion; etc.
  • the promoter is a spatially restricted promoter (i.e., cell type specific promoter, tissue specific promoter, etc.) such that in a multi-cellular organism, the promoter is active (i.e., “ON”) in a subset of specific cells.
  • spatially restricted promoters may also be referred to as enhancers, transcriptional control elements, control sequences, etc.
  • any convenient spatially restricted promoter may be used and the choice of suitable promoter (e.g., a brain specific promoter, a promoter that drives expression in a subset of neurons, a promoter that drives expression in the germline, a promoter that drives expression in the lungs, a promoter that drives expression in muscles, a promoter that drives expression in islet cells of the pancreas, etc.) will depend on the organism.
  • various spatially restricted promoters are known for plants, flies, worms, mammals, mice, etc.
  • a spatially restricted promoter can be used to regulate the expression of a nucleic acid encoding a subject site-directed polypeptide in a wide variety of different tissues and cell types, depending on the organism.
  • Some spatially restricted promoters are also temporally restricted such that the promoter is in the “ON” state or “OFF” state during specific stages of embryonic development or during specific stages of a biological process (e.g., hair follicle cycle in mice).
  • spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to, neuron-specific promoters, adipocyte-specific promoters, cardiomyocyte-specific promoters, smooth muscle-specific promoters, photoreceptor-specific promoters, etc.
  • Neuron-specific spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to, a neuron-specific enolase (NSE) promoter (see, e.g., EMBL HSENO2, X51956); an aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) promoter; a neurofilament promoter (see, e.g., GenBank HUMNFL, L04147); a synapsin promoter (see, e.g., GenBank HUMSYNIB, M55301); a thy-1 promoter (see, e.g., Chen et al. (1987) Cell 51:7-19; and Llewellyn, et al. (2010) Nat. Med.
  • NSE neuron-specific enolase
  • AADC aromatic amino acid decarboxylase
  • Adipocyte-specific spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to aP2 gene promoter/enhancer, e.g., a region from ⁇ 5.4 kb to +21 bp of a human aP2 gene (see, e.g., Tozzo et al. (1997) Endocrinol. 138:1604; Ross et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:9590; and Pavjani et al. (2005) Nat. Med. 11:797); a glucose transporter-4 (GLUT4) promoter (see, e.g., Knight et al. (2003) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
  • aP2 gene promoter/enhancer e.g., a region from ⁇ 5.4 kb to +21 bp of a human aP2 gene (see, e.g., Tozzo et al. (1997) Endocrinol. 138:160
  • fatty acid translocase (FAT/CD36) promoter see, e.g., Kuriki et al. (2002) Biol. Pharm. Bull. 25:1476; and Sato et al. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277:15703
  • SCD1 stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1
  • SCD1 stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 promoter
  • leptin promoter see, e.g., Mason et al. (1998) Endocrinol. 139:1013; and Chen et al. (1999) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm.
  • adiponectin promoter see, e.g., Kita et al. (2005) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 331:484; and Chakrabarti (2010) Endocrinol. 151:2408
  • an adipsin promoter see, e.g., Platt et al. (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:7490
  • a resistin promoter see, e.g., Seo et al. (2003) Molec. Endocrinol. 17:1522); and the like.
  • Cardiomyocyte-specific spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to control sequences derived from the following genes: myosin light chain-2, ⁇ -myosin heavy chain, AE3, cardiac troponin C, cardiac actin, and the like.
  • Franz et al. (1997) Cardiovasc. Res. 35:560-566; Robbins et al. (1995) Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 752:492-505; Linn et al. (1995) Circ. Res. 76:584-591; Parmacek et al. (1994) Mol. Cell. Biol. 14:1870-1885; Hunter et al. (1993) Hypertension 22:608-617; and Sartorelli et al. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:4047-4051.
  • Smooth muscle-specific spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to an SM22a promoter (see, e.g., Akyürek et al. (2000) Mol. Med. 6:983; and U.S. Pat. No. 7,169,874); a smoothelin promoter (see, e.g., WO 2001/018048); an ⁇ -smooth muscle actin promoter; and the like.
  • a 0.4 kb region of the SM22 ⁇ promoter, within which lie two CArG elements has been shown to mediate vascular smooth muscle cell-specific expression (see, e.g., Kim, et al. (1997) Mol. Cell. Biol. 17, 2266-2278; Li, et al., (1996) J. Cell Biol. 132, 849-859; and Moessler, et al. (1996) Development 122, 2415-2425).
  • Photoreceptor-specific spatially restricted promoters include, but are not limited to, a rhodopsin promoter; a rhodopsin kinase promoter (Young et al. (2003) Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44:4076); a beta phosphodiesterase gene promoter (Nicoud et al. (2007) J. Gene Med. 9:1015); a retinitis pigmentosa gene promoter (Nicoud et al. (2007) supra); an interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP) gene enhancer (Nicoud et al. (2007) supra); an IRBP gene promoter (Yokoyama et al. (1992) Exp Eye Res. 55:225); and the like.
  • a rhodopsin promoter a rhodopsin kinase promoter
  • a beta phosphodiesterase gene promoter Necoud et al. (2007) J. Gene
  • the present disclosure provides a library of DNA-targeting RNAs.
  • the present disclosure provides a library of nucleic acids comprising nucleotides encoding DNA-targeting RNAs.
  • a subject library of nucleic acids comprising nucleotides encoding DNA-targeting RNAs can comprises a library of recombinant expression vectors comprising nucleotides encoding the DNA-targeting RNAs.
  • a subject library can comprise from about 10 individual members to about 10 12 individual members; e.g., a subject library can comprise from about 10 individual members to about 10 2 individual members, from about 10 2 individual members to about 10 3 individual members, from about 10 3 individual members to about 10 5 individual members, from about 10 5 individual members to about 10 7 individual members, from about 10 7 individual members to about 10 9 individual members, or from about 10 9 individual members to about 10 12 individual members.
  • each individual member of a subject library differs from other members of the library in the nucleotide sequence of the DNA targeting segment of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • each individual member of a subject library can comprise the same or substantially the same nucleotide sequence of the protein-binding segment as all other members of the library; and can comprise the same or substantially the same nucleotide sequence of the transcriptional termination segment as all other members of the library; but differs from other members of the library in the nucleotide sequence of the DNA targeting segment of the DNA-targeting RNA.
  • the library can comprise members that bind to different target nucleic acids.
  • a method for modulating transcription according to the present disclosure finds use in a variety of applications, which are also provided.
  • Applications include research applications; diagnostic applications; industrial applications; and treatment applications.
  • Research applications include, e.g., determining the effect of reducing or increasing transcription of a target nucleic acid on, e.g., development, metabolism, expression of a downstream gene, and the like.
  • a library comprising a plurality of nucleic acids used in the genomic analysis would include: a promoter operably linked to a DNA-targeting RNA-encoding nucleotide sequence, where each nucleic acid would include a different DNA-targeting segment, a common protein-binding segment, and a common transcription termination segment.
  • a chip could contain over 5 ⁇ 10 4 unique DNA-targeting RNAs. Applications would include large-scale phenotyping, gene-to-function mapping, and meta-genomic analysis.
  • the subject methods disclosed herein find use in the field of metabolic engineering. Because transcription levels can be efficiently and predictably controlled by designing an appropriate DNA-targeting RNA, as disclosed herein, the activity of metabolic pathways (e.g., biosynthetic pathways) can be precisely controlled and tuned by controlling the level of specific enzymes (e.g., via increased or decreased transcription) within a metabolic pathway of interest. Metabolic pathways of interest include those used for chemical (fine chemicals, fuel, antibiotics, toxins, agonists, antagonists, etc.) and/or drug production.
  • Biosynthetic pathways of interest include but are not limited to (1) the mevalonate pathway (e.g., HMG-CoA reductase pathway) (converts acetyl-CoA to dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), which are used for the biosynthesis of a wide variety of biomolecules including terpenoids/isoprenoids), (2) the non-mevalonate pathway (i.e., the “2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate/1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate pathway” or “MEP/DOXP pathway” or “DXP pathway”)(also produces DMAPP and IPP, instead by converting pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate into DMAPP and IPP via an alternative pathway to the mevalonate pathway), (3) the polyketide synthesis pathway (produces a variety of polyketides via a variety of polyketide synth
  • Polyketides include naturally occurring small molecules used for chemotherapy (e. g., tetracyclin, and macrolides) and industrially important polyketides include rapamycin (immunosuppressant), erythromycin (antibiotic), lovastatin (anticholesterol drug), and epothilone B (anticancer drug)), (4) fatty acid synthesis pathways, (5) the DAHP (3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate 7-phosphate) synthesis pathway, (6) pathways that produce potential biofuels (such as short-chain alcohols and alkane, fatty acid methyl esters and fatty alcohols, isoprenoids, etc.), etc.
  • rapamycin immunosuppressant
  • erythromycin antibiotic
  • lovastatin anticholesterol drug
  • epothilone B anticancer drug
  • RNA/variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide may be used to control (i.e., modulate, e.g., increase, decrease) the expression of another DNA-targeting RNA or another subject variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide.
  • a first DNA-targeting RNA may be designed to target the modulation of transcription of a second chimeric dCas9 polypeptide with a function that is different than the first variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide (e.g., methyltransferase activity, demethylase activity, acetyltansferase activity, deacetylase activity, etc.).
  • the second chimeric dCas9 polypeptide can be derived from a different species than the first dCas9 polypeptide above.
  • the second chimeric dCas9 polypeptide can be selected such that it may not interact with the first DNA-targeting RNA. In other cases, the second chimeric dCas9 polypeptide can be selected such that it does interact with the first DNA-targeting RNA. In some such cases, the activities of the two (or more) dCas9 proteins may compete (e.g., if the polypeptides have opposing activities) or may synergize (e.g., if the polypeptides have similar or synergistic activities).
  • any of the complexes i.e., DNA-targeting RNA/dCas9 polypeptide
  • any of the complexes in the network can be designed to control other DNA-targeting RNAs or dCas9 polypeptides.
  • a subject DNA-targeting RNA and subject variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide can be targeted to any desired DNA sequence, the methods described herein can be used to control and regulate the expression of any desired target.
  • the integrated networks i.e., cascades of interactions
  • the level of expression of one component of the network may affect the level of expression (e.g., may increase or decrease the expression) of another component of the network.
  • the expression of one component may affect the expression of a different component in the same network, and the network may include a mix of components that increase the expression of other components, as well as components that decrease the expression of other components.
  • level of expression of one component may affect the level of expression of one or more different component(s) are for illustrative purposes, and are not limiting.
  • An additional layer of complexity may be optionally introduced into a network when one or more components are modified (as described above) to be manipulable (i.e., under experimental control, e.g., temperature control; drug control, i.e., drug inducible control; light control; etc.).
  • a first DNA-targeting RNA can bind to the promoter of a second DNA-targeting RNA, which controls the expression of a target therapeutic/metabolic gene.
  • conditional expression of the first DNA-targeting RNA indirectly activates the therapeutic/metabolic gene.
  • RNA cascades of this type are useful, for example, for easily converting a repressor into an activator, and can be used to control the logics or dynamics of expression of a target gene.
  • a subject transcription modulation method can also be used for drug discovery and target validation.
  • a subject kit comprises: a) a DNA-targeting RNA of the present disclosure, or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the DNA-targeting RNA, wherein the DNA-targeting RNA comprises: i)) a first segment comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a target sequence in the target DNA; ii)) a second segment that interacts with a site-directed polypeptide; and iii) a transcriptional terminator; and b) a buffer.
  • the nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the DNA-targeting RNA further comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide that exhibits reduced endodeoxyribonuclease activity relative to wild-type Cas9.
  • a subject kit further comprises a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide that exhibits reduced endodeoxyribonuclease activity relative to wild-type Cas9.
  • a subject kit further comprises a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide that exhibits reduced endodeoxyribonuclease activity relative to wild-type Cas9.
  • a subject can further include one or more additional reagents, where such additional reagents can be selected from: a buffer; a wash buffer; a control reagent; a control expression vector or RNA polynucleotide; a reagent for in vitro production of the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide from DNA; and the like.
  • additional reagents can be selected from: a buffer; a wash buffer; a control reagent; a control expression vector or RNA polynucleotide; a reagent for in vitro production of the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide from DNA; and the like.
  • the variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide included in a subject kit is a fusion variant Cas9 site-directed polypeptide, as described above.
  • Components of a subject kit can be in separate containers; or can be combined in a single container.
  • a subject kit can further include instructions for using the components of the kit to practice the subject methods.
  • the instructions for practicing the subject methods are generally recorded on a suitable recording medium.
  • the instructions may be printed on a substrate, such as paper or plastic, etc.
  • the instructions may be present in the kits as a package insert, in the labeling of the container of the kit or components thereof (i.e., associated with the packaging or subpackaging) etc.
  • the instructions are present as an electronic storage data file present on a suitable computer readable storage medium, e.g. CD-ROM, diskette, flash drive, etc.
  • the actual instructions are not present in the kit, but means for obtaining the instructions from a remote source, e.g. via the internet, are provided.
  • An example of this embodiment is a kit that includes a web address where the instructions can be viewed and/or from which the instructions can be downloaded. As with the instructions, this means for obtaining the instructions is recorded on a suitable substrate.
  • Standard abbreviations may be used, e.g., bp, base pair(s); kb, kilobase(s); pl, picoliter(s); s or sec, second(s); min, minute(s); h or hr, hour(s); aa, amino acid(s); kb, kilobase(s); bp, base pair(s); nt, nucleotide(s); i.m., intramuscular(ly); i.p., intraperitoneal(ly); s.c., subcutaneous(ly); and the like.
  • Streptococcus pyogenes cultured in THY medium (Todd Hewitt Broth (THB, Bacto, Becton Dickinson) supplemented with 0.2% yeast extract (Oxoid)) or on TSA (trypticase soy agar, BBL, Becton Dickinson) supplemented with 3% sheep blood, was incubated at 37° C. in an atmosphere supplemented with 5% CO 2 without shaking.
  • Escherichia coli cultured in Luria-Bertani (LB) medium and agar, was incubated at 37° C. with shaking.
  • suitable antibiotics were added to the medium at the following final concentrations: ampicillin, 100 ⁇ g/ml for E.
  • Bacterial cell growth was monitored periodically by measuring the optical density of culture aliquots at 620 nm using a microplate reader (SLT Spectra Reader).
  • Plasmid DNA transformation into E. coli cells was performed according to a standard heat shock protocol. Transformation of S. pyogenes was performed as previously described with some modifications. The transformation assay performed to monitor in vivo CRISPR/Cas activity on plasmid maintenance was essentially carried out as described previously. Briefly, electrocompetent cells of S. pyogenes were equalized to the same cell density and electroporated with 500 ng of plasmid DNA. Every transformation was plated two to three times and the experiment was performed three times independently with different batches of competent cells for statistical analysis. Transformation efficiencies were calculated as CFU (colony forming units) per ⁇ g of DNA. Control transformations were performed with sterile water and backbone vector pEC85.
  • DNA manipulations including DNA preparation, amplification, digestion, ligation, purification, agarose gel electrophoresis were performed according to standard techniques with minor modifications.
  • Protospacer plasmids for the in vitro cleavage and S. pyogenes transformation assays were constructed as described previously (4).
  • Additional pUC19-based protospacer plasmids for in vitro cleavage assays were generated by ligating annealed oligonucleotides between digested EcoRI and BamHI sites in pUC19.
  • the GFP gene-containing plasmid has been described previously (41). Kits (Qiagen) were used for DNA purification and plasmid preparation.
  • Plasmid mutagenesis was performed using QuikChange® II XL kit (Stratagene) or QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis kit (Agilent). VBC-Biotech Services, Sigma-Aldrich and Integrated DNA Technologies supplied the synthetic oligonucleotides and RNAs.
  • OLEC1521 F 5′ tracrRNA: SEQ ID NO:340 OLEC1522 (R 3′ tracrRNA): SEQ ID NO:341 T7-crRNA (Template) OLEC2176 (F crRNA-sp1): SEQ ID NO:342 OLEC2178 (R crRNA-sp1): SEQ ID NO:343 OLEC2177 (F crRNA-sp2): SEQ ID NO:344 OLEC2179 (R crRNA-sp2): SEQ ID NO:345
  • T7-tracrRNA OLEC2205 (F predicted 5′): SEQ ID NO:346 OLEC2206 (R predicted 3′): SEQ ID NO:347 T7-crRNA (Template) OLEC2209 (F sp2(speM)+N.m. repeat): SEQ ID NO:348 OLEC2214 (R sp2(speM)+N.m. repeat): SEQ ID NO:349
  • T7-tracrRNA OLEC2203 (F predicted 5′): SEQ ID NO:350 OLEC2204 (R predicted 3′): SEQ ID NO:351 T7-crRNA (Template) OLEC2207 (F sp2(speM)+L.in. repeat): SEQ ID NO:352 OLEC2212 (R sp2(speM)+L.in. repeat): SEQ ID NO:353 Oligonucleotides for Constructing Plasmids with Protospacer for In Vitro and In Vivo Studies
  • Plasmids for speM spacer 2 (CRISPR Type II-A, SF370; protospacer prophage ⁇ 8232.3 from MGAS8232) analysis in vitro and in S. pyogenes (template: chr. DNA MGAS8232 or plasmids containing speM fragments)
  • Plasmids for SPy — 0700 spacer 1 (CRISPR Type II-A, SF370; protospacer prophage ⁇ 370.1 from SF370) analysis in vitro and in S. pyogenes (template: chr. DNA SF370 or plasmids containing SPy — 0700 fragments)
  • ColE1 (pEC85) oliRN228 (R sequencing): SEQ ID NO:380 speM (pEC287) OLEC1557 (F sequencing): SEQ ID NO:381 OLEC1556 (R sequencing): SEQ ID NO:382 repDEG-pAMbeta1 (pEC85) OLEC787 (F sequencing): SEQ ID NO:383
  • Spacer 1 crRNA (1-42): SEQ ID NO:384
  • Spacer 2 crRNA (1-42): SEQ ID NO:385 Spacer 4 crRNA (1-42): SEQ ID NO:386 Spacer 2 crRNA (1-36): SEQ ID NO:387 Spacer 2 crRNA (1-32): SEQ ID NO:388 Spacer 2 crRNA (11-42): SEQ ID NO:389
  • Spacer 1 chimera A: SEQ ID NO:400 Spacer 1—chimera B: SEQ ID NO:401 Spacer 2—chimera A: SEQ ID NO:402 Spacer 2—chimera B: SEQ ID NO:403 Spacer 4—chimera A: SEQ ID NO:404 Spacer 4—chimera B: SEQ ID NO:405
  • GFP1 SEQ ID NO:406
  • GFP2 SEQ ID NO:407
  • GFP3 SEQ ID NO:408
  • GFP4 SEQ ID NO:409
  • GFP5 SEQ ID NO:410
  • RNA was in vitro transcribed using T7 Flash in vitro Transcription Kit (Epicentre, Illumina company) and PCR-generated DNA templates carrying a T7 promoter sequence. RNA was gel-purified and quality-checked prior to use. The primers used for the preparation of RNA templates from S. pyogenes SF370, Listeria innocua Clip 11262 and Neisseria meningitidis A Z2491 are described above.
  • the sequence encoding Cas9 was PCRamplified from the genomic DNA of S. pyogenes SF370 and inserted into a custom pET-based expression vector using ligation-independent cloning (LIC).
  • the resulting fusion construct contained an N-terminal hexahistidine-maltose binding protein (His6-MBP) tag, followed by a peptide sequence containing a tobacco etch virus (TEV) protease cleavage site.
  • the protein was expressed in E. coli strain BL21 Rosetta 2 (DE3) (EMD Biosciences), grown in 2 ⁇ TY medium at 18° C. for 16 h following induction with 0.2 mM IPTG.
  • the protein was purified by a combination of affinity, ion exchange and size exclusion chromatographic steps. Briefly, cells were lysed in 20 mM Tris pH 8.0, 500 mM NaCl, 1 mM TCEP (supplemented with protease inhibitor cocktail (Roche)) in a homogenizer (Avestin). Clarified lysate was bound in batch to Ni-NTA agarose (Qiagen). The resin was washed extensively with 20 mM Tris pH 8.0, 500 mM NaCl and the bound protein was eluted in 20 mM Tris pH 8.0, 250 mM NaCl, 10% glycerol.
  • the His6-MBP affinity tag was removed by cleavage with TEV protease, while the protein was dialyzed overnight against 20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 150 mM KCl, 1 mM TCEP, 10% glycerol.
  • the cleaved Cas9 protein was separated from the fusion tag by purification on a 5 ml SP Sepharose HiTrap column (GE Life Sciences), eluting with a linear gradient of 100 mM-1 M KCl.
  • the protein was further purified by size exclusion chromatography on a Superdex 200 16/60 column in 20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 150 mM KCl and 1 mM TCEP.
  • Eluted protein was concentrated to ⁇ 8 mg/ml, flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at ⁇ 80° C.
  • Cas9 D10A, H840A and D10A/H840A point mutants were generated using the QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis kit (Agilent) and confirmed by DNA sequencing.
  • the proteins were purified following the same procedure as for the wildtype Cas9 protein.
  • Cas9 orthologs from Streptococcus thermophilus (LMD-9, YP — 820832.1), L. innocua (Clip11262, NP — 472073.1), Campylobacter jejuni (subsp. jejuni NCTC 11168, YP — 002344900.1) and N. meningitidis (Z2491, YP — 002342100.1) were expressed in BL21 Rosetta (DE3) pLysS cells (Novagen) as His6-MBP ( N. meningitidis and C. jejuni ), His6-Thioredoxin ( L. innocua ) and His6-GST ( S.
  • thermophilus ) fusion proteins and purified essentially as for S. pyogenes Cas9 with the following modifications. Due to large amounts of co-purifying nucleic acids, all four Cas9 proteins were purified by an additional heparin sepharose step prior to gel filtration, eluting the bound protein with a linear gradient of 100 mM-2 M KCl. This successfully removed nucleic acid contamination from the C. jejuni, N. meningitidis and L. innocua proteins, but failed to remove co-purifying nucleic acids from the S. thermophilus Cas9 preparation. All proteins were concentrated to 1-8 mg/ml in 20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 150 mM KCl and 1 mM TCEP, flash-frozen in liquid N2 and stored at ⁇ 80° C.
  • tracrRNA and crRNA were pre-annealed prior to the reaction by heating to 95° C. and slowly cooling down to room temperature.
  • Native or restriction digest-linearized plasmid DNA 300 ng ( ⁇ 8 nM) was incubated for 60 min at 37° C. with purified Cas9 protein (50-500 nM) and tracrRNA:crRNA duplex (50-500 nM, 1:1) in a Cas9 plasmid cleavage buffer (20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 150 mM KCl, 0.5 mM DTT, 0.1 mM EDTA) with or without 10 mM MgCl 2 .
  • the reactions were stopped with 5 ⁇ DNA loading buffer containing 250 mM EDTA, resolved by 0.8 or 1% agarose gel electrophoresis and visualized by ethidium bromide staining.
  • 5 ⁇ SDS loading buffer (30% glycerol, 1.2% SDS, 250 mM EDTA) prior to loading on the agarose gel.
  • Protospacer 2 plasmid DNA (5 nM) was incubated for 1 h at 37° C. with Cas9 (50 nM) pre-incubated with 50 nM tracrRNA:crRNA-sp2 in cleavage buffer (20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 150 mM KCl, 0.5 mM DTT, 0.1 mM EDTA) supplemented with 1, 5 or 10 mM MgCl 2 , 1 or 10 mM of MnCl 2 , CaCl 2 , ZnCl 2 , CoCl 2 , NiSO 4 or CuSO 4 . The reaction was stopped by adding 5 ⁇ SDS loading buffer (30% glycerol, 1.2% SDS, 250 mM EDTA), resolved by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis and visualized by ethidium bromide staining.
  • 5 ⁇ SDS loading buffer (30% glycerol, 1.2% SDS, 250 mM EDTA
  • Cas9 (25 nM) was pre-incubated 15 min at 37° C. in cleavage buffer (20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 150 mM KCl, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 0.5 mM DTT, 0.1 mM EDTA) with duplexed tracrRNA:crRNA-sp2 (25 nM, 1:1) or both RNAs (25 nM) not preannealed and the reaction was started by adding protospacer 2 plasmid DNA (5 nM). The reaction mix was incubated at 37° C.
  • Cas9 (1 nM) was pre-incubated for 15 min at 37° C. in cleavage buffer (20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 150 mM KCl, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 0.5 mM DTT, 0.1 mM EDTA) with pre-annealed tracrRNA:crRNA-sp2 (1 nM, 1:1).
  • the reaction was started by addition of protospacer 2 plasmid DNA (5 nM). At defined time intervals, samples were withdrawn and the reaction was stopped by adding 5 ⁇ SDS loading buffer (30% glycerol, 1.2% SDS, 250 mM EDTA).
  • the cleavage reaction was resolved by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis, stained with ethidium bromide and the percentage of cleavage was analyzed by densitometry. The results of four independent experiments were plotted against time (min).
  • DNA oligonucleotides (10 pmol) were radiolabeled by incubating with 5 units T4 polynucleotide kinase (New England Biolabs) and ⁇ 3-6 pmol ( ⁇ 20-40 mCi) [ ⁇ -32P]-ATP (Promega) in 1 ⁇ T4 polynucleotide kinase reaction buffer at 37° C. for 30 min, in a 50 ⁇ L reaction. After heat inactivation (65° C. for 20 min), reactions were purified through an Illustra MicroSpin G-25 column (GE Healthcare) to remove unincorporated label.
  • T4 polynucleotide kinase New England Biolabs
  • ⁇ 3-6 pmol ⁇ 20-40 mCi
  • [ ⁇ -32P]-ATP Promega
  • Duplex substrates (100 nM) were generated by annealing labeled oligonucleotides with equimolar amounts of unlabeled complementary oligonucleotide at 95° C. for 3 min, followed by slow cooling to room temperature.
  • tracrRNA and crRNA were annealed by heating to 95° C. for 30 s, followed by slow cooling to room temperature.
  • Cas9 (500 nM final concentration) was pre-incubated with the annealed tracrRNA:crRNA duplex (500 nM) in cleavage assay buffer (20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 100 mM KCl, 5 mM MgCl 2 , 1 mM DTT, 5% glycerol) in a total volume of 9 ⁇ l. Reactions were initiated by the addition of 1 ⁇ l target DNA (10 nM) and incubated for 1 h at 37° C. Reactions were quenched by the addition of 20 ⁇ l of loading dye (5 mM EDTA, 0.025% SDS, 5% glycerol in formamide) and heated to 95° C. for 5 min.
  • loading dye 5 mM EDTA, 0.025% SDS, 5% glycerol in formamide
  • Cleavage products were resolved on 12% denaturing polyacrylamide gels containing 7 M urea and visualized by phosphorimaging (Storm, GE Life Sciences). Cleavage assays testing PAM requirements ( FIG. 13B ) were carried out using DNA duplex substrates that had been pre-annealed and purified on an 8% native acrylamide gel, and subsequently radiolabeled at both 5′ ends. The reactions were set-up and analyzed as above.
  • Target DNA duplexes were formed by mixing of each strand (10 nmol) in deionized water, heating to 95° C. for 3 min and slow cooling to room temperature. All DNAs were purified on 8% native gels containing 1 ⁇ TBE. DNA bands were visualized by UV shadowing, excised, and eluted by soaking gel pieces in DEPC-treated H 2 O. Eluted DNA was ethanol precipitated and dissolved in DEPC-treated H 2 O. DNA samples were 5′ end labeled with [ ⁇ -32P]-ATP using T4 polynucleotide kinase (New England Biolabs) for 30 min at 37° C. PNK was heat denatured at 65° C.
  • Binding assays were performed in buffer containing 20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 100 mM KCl, 5 mM MgCl 2 , 1 mM DTT and 10% glycerol in a total volume of 10 ⁇ l.
  • Cas9 D10A/H840A double mutant was programmed with equimolar amounts of pre-annealed tracrRNA:crRNA duplex and titrated from 100 pM to 1 ⁇ M.
  • Radiolabeled DNA was added to a final concentration of 20 pM. Samples were incubated for 1 h at 37° C. and resolved at 4° C. on an 8% native polyacrylamide gel containing 1 ⁇ TBE and 5 mM MgCl 2 . Gels were dried and DNA visualized by phosphorimaging.
  • Vector NTI package (Invitrogen) was used for DNA sequence analysis (Vector NTI) and comparative sequence analysis of proteins (AlignX).
  • RNA secondary structures and co-folding models were predicted with RNAfold and RNAcofold, respectively and visualized with VARNA (44).
  • RNA mediated adaptive defense systems called clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated (Cas) that protect organisms from invading viruses and plasmids (1-3).
  • CRISPR clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
  • Cas CRISPR-associated
  • ds double-stranded
  • the dual-tracrRNA:crRNA when engineered as a single RNA chimera, also directs sequence-specific Cas9 dsDNA cleavage. These studies reveal a family of endonucleases that use dual-RNAs for site-specific DNA cleavage and highlight the ability to exploit the system for RNA-programmable genome editing.
  • CRISPR/Cas defense systems rely on small RNAs for sequence-specific detection and silencing of foreign nucleic acids.
  • CRISPR/Cas systems are composed of cas genes organized in operon(s) and CRISPR array(s) consisting of genome-targeting sequences (called spacers) interspersed with identical repeats (1-3).
  • CRISPR/Cas-mediated immunity occurs in three steps. In the adaptive phase, bacteria and archaea harboring one or more CRISPR loci respond to viral or plasmid challenge by integrating short fragments of foreign sequence (protospacers) into the host chromosome at the proximal end of the CRISPR array (1-3).
  • pre-crRNA CRISPR RNA
  • enzymatic cleavage yields the short crRNAs that can pair with complementary protospacer sequences of invading viral or plasmid targets (4-11).
  • Target recognition by crRNAs directs the silencing of the foreign sequences by means of Cas proteins that function in complex with the crRNAs (10, 12-20).
  • CRISPR/Cas systems There are three types of CRISPR/Cas systems (21-23).
  • the type I and III systems share some overarching features: specialized Cas endonucleases process the pre-crRNAs, and oncemature, each crRNA assembles into a large multi-Cas protein complex capable of recognizing and cleaving nucleic acids complementary to the crRNA.
  • type II systems process precrRNAs by a different mechanism in which a trans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA) complementary to the repeat sequences in pre-crRNA triggers processing by the double-stranded (ds) RNAspecific ribonuclease RNase III in the presence of the Cas9 (formerly Csn1) protein ( FIG. 15 ) (4, 24).
  • Cas9 is thought to be the sole protein responsible for crRNA-guided silencing of foreign DNA (25-27).
  • Cas9 proteins constitute a family of enzymes that require a base-paired structure formed between the activating tracrRNA and the targeting crRNA to cleave target dsDNA.
  • Site-specific cleavage occurs at locations determined by both base-pairing complementarity between the crRNA and the target protospacer DNA and a short motif [referred to as the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM)] juxtaposed to the complementary region in the target DNA.
  • PAM protospacer adjacent motif
  • Cas9 is a DNA Endonuclease Guided by Two RNAs
  • Cas9 the hallmark protein of type II systems, has been hypothesized to be involved in both crRNA maturation and crRNA-guided DNA interference ( FIG. 15 ) (4, 25-27). Cas9 is involved in crRNA maturation (4), but its direct participation in target DNA destruction has not been investigated.
  • an overexpression system to purify Cas9 protein derived from the pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes ( FIG. 16 , see supplementary materials and methods) and tested its ability to cleave a plasmid DNA or an oligonucleotide duplex bearing a protospacer sequence complementary to a mature crRNA, and a bona fide PAM.
  • FIG. 10A and FIG. 17A We found that mature crRNA alone was incapable of directing Cas9-catalyzed plasmid DNA cleavage ( FIG. 10A and FIG. 17A ).
  • addition of tracrRNA which can pair with the repeat sequence of crRNA and is essential to crRNA maturation in this system, triggered Cas9 to cleave plasmid DNA ( FIG. 10A and FIG. 17A ).
  • the cleavage reaction required both magnesium and the presence of a crRNA sequence complementary to the DNA; a crRNA capable of tracrRNA base pairing but containing a noncognate target DNA-binding sequence did not support Cas9-catalyzed plasmid cleavage ( FIG. 10A ; FIG.
  • the trans-activating tracrRNA is a small noncoding RNA with two critical functions: triggering pre-crRNA processing by the enzyme RNase III (4) and subsequently activating crRNA-guided DNA cleavage by Cas9.
  • Cleavage of both plasmid and short linear dsDNA by tracrRNA:crRNA-guided Cas9 is site specific ( FIG. 10 , C to E, and FIGS. 19 , A and B). Plasmid DNA cleavage produced blunt ends at a position three base pairs upstream of the PAM sequence ( FIGS. 10 , C and E, and FIGS. 19 , A and C) (26). Similarly, within short dsDNA duplexes, the DNA strand that is complementary to the target-binding sequence in the crRNA (the complementary strand) is cleaved at a site three base pairs upstream of the PAM ( FIGS. 10 , D and E, and FIGS. 19 , B and C).
  • the noncomplementary DNA strand is cleaved at one or more sites within three to eight base pairs upstream of the PAM. Further investigation revealed that the noncomplementary strand is first cleaved endonucleolytically and subsequently trimmed by a 3′-5′ exonuclease activity ( FIG. 18B ).
  • the cleavage rates by Cas9 under single-turnover conditions ranged from 0.3 to 1 min-1, comparable to those of restriction endonucleases ( FIG. 20A ), whereas incubation of wildtype (WT) Cas9-tracrRNA:crRNA complex with a fivefold molar excess of substrate DNA provided evidence that the dual-RNA—guided Cas9 is a multiple-turnover enzyme ( FIG. 20B ).
  • Cas9 cleaves both linearized and supercoiled plasmids ( FIGS. 10A and 11A ). Therefore, an invading plasmid can, in principle, be cleaved multiple times by Cas9 proteins programmed with different crRNAs.
  • FIG. 10 Cas9 was programmed with a 42-nucleotide crRNA-sp2 (crRNA containing a spacer 2 sequence) in the presence or absence of 75-nucleotide tracrRNA. The complex was added to circular or XhoI-linearized plasmid DNA bearing a sequence complementary to spacer 2 and a functional PAM. crRNA-sp1, specificity control; M, DNA marker; kbp, kilo—base pair. See FIG. 17A .
  • Cas9 was programmed with crRNA-sp2 and tracrRNA (nucleotides 4 to 89).
  • the complex was incubated with double- or single-stranded DNAs harboring a sequence complementary to spacer 2 and a functional PAM (4).
  • the complementary or noncomplementary strands of the DNA were 5′-radiolabeled and annealed with a nonlabeled partner strand. nt, nucleotides. See FIGS. 17 , B and C.
  • C Sequencing analysis of cleavage products from FIG. 10A . Termination of primer extension in the sequencing reaction indicates the position of the cleavage site. The 3′ terminal A overhang (asterisks) is an artifact of the sequencing reaction. See FIGS. 19 , A and C.
  • D The cleavage products from FIG.
  • FIG. 15 depicts the type II RNA-mediated CRISPR/Cas immune pathway.
  • the expression and interference steps are represented in the drawing.
  • the type II CRISPR/Cas loci are composed of an operon of four genes encoding the proteins Cas9, Cas1, Cas2 and Csn2, a CRISPR array consisting of a leader sequence followed by identical repeats (black rectangles) interspersed with unique genome-targeting spacers (diamonds) and a sequence encoding the trans-activating tracrRNA.
  • Represented here is the type II CRISPR/Cas locus of S. pyogenes SF370 (Accession number NC — 002737) (4).
  • the CRISPR array is transcribed as a precursor CRISPR RNA (pre-crRNA) molecule that undergoes a maturation process specific to the type II systems (4).
  • pre-crRNA CRISPR RNA
  • tracrRNA is transcribed as two primary transcripts of 171 and 89 nt in length that have complementarity to each repeat of the pre-crRNA.
  • the first processing event involves pairing of tracrRNA to pre-crRNA, forming a duplex RNA that is recognized and cleaved by the housekeeping endoribonuclease RNase III in the presence of the Cas9 protein.
  • RNase III-mediated cleavage of the duplex RNA generates a 75-nt processed tracrRNA and a 66-nt intermediate crRNAs consisting of a central region containing a sequence of one spacer, flanked by portions of the repeat sequence.
  • a second processing event mediated by unknown ribonuclease(s), leads to the formation of mature crRNAs of 39 to 42 nt in length consisting of 5′-terminal spacer-derived guide sequence and repeat-derived 3′-terminal sequence.
  • mature tracrRNA remains paired to the mature crRNAs and bound to the Cas9 protein.
  • the dual tracrRNA:crRNA structure acts as guide RNA that directs the endonuclease Cas9 to the cognate target DNA.
  • Target recognition by the Cas9-tracrRNA:crRNA complex is initiated by scanning the invading DNA molecule for homology between the protospacer sequence in the target DNA and the spacer-derived sequence in the crRNA.
  • DNA targeting requires the presence of a short motif (NGG, where N can be any nucleotide) adjacent to the protospacer (protospacer adjacent motif—PAM).
  • Cas9 Following pairing between the dual-RNA and the protospacer sequence, an R-loop is formed and Cas9 subsequently introduces a double-stranded break (DSB) in the DNA. Cleavage of target DNA by Cas9 requires two catalytic domains in the protein. At a specific site relative to the PAM, the HNH domain cleaves the complementary strand of the DNA while the RuvC-like domain cleaves the noncomplementary strand.
  • FIG. 16 S. pyogenes Cas9 was expressed in E. coli as a fusion protein containing an N-terminal His6-MBP tag and purified by a combination of affinity, ion exchange and size exclusion chromatographic steps.
  • the affinity tag was removed by TEV protease cleavage following the affinity purification step. Shown is a chromatogram of the final size exclusion chromatography step on a Superdex 200 (16/60) column.
  • Cas9 elutes as a single monomeric peak devoid of contaminating nucleic acids, as judged by the ratio of absorbances at 280 and 260 nm.
  • FIG. 17 (also see FIG. 10 ).
  • the protospacer 1 sequence originates from S. pyogenes SF370 (M1) SPy — 0700, target of S. pyogenes SF370 crRNAsp1 (4).
  • the protospacer 1 sequence was manipulated by changing the PAM from a nonfunctional sequence (TTG) to a functional one (TGG).
  • the protospacer 4 sequence originates from S. pyogenes MGAS10750 (M4) MGAS10750_Spy1285, target of S. pyogenes SF370 crRNA-sp4 (4).
  • cleavage products were resolved by agarose gel electrophoresis and visualized by ethidium bromide staining. M, DNA marker; fragment sizes in base pairs are indicated.
  • B Protospacer 1 oligonucleotide DNA cleavage guided by cognate tracrRNA:crRNA-sp1 duplex. The cleavage products were resolved by denaturating polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and visualized by phosphorimaging. Fragment sizes in nucleotides are indicated.
  • C Protospacer 4 oligonucleotide DNA cleavage guided by cognate tracrRNA:crRNA-sp4 duplex.
  • FIG. 18 (also see FIG. 10 ).
  • A Protospacer 2 plasmid DNA was incubated with Cas9 complexed with tracrRNA:crRNA-sp2 in the presence of different concentrations of Mg 2+ , Mn 2+ , Ca 2+ , Zn 2+ , Co 2+ , Ni 2+ or Cu 2+ . The cleavage products were resolved by agarose gel electrophoresis and visualized by ethidium bromide staining. Plasmid forms are indicated.
  • B A protospacer 4 oligonucleotide DNA duplex containing a PAM motif was annealed and gel-purified prior to radiolabeling at both 5′ ends.
  • the duplex (10 nM final concentration) was incubated with Cas9 programmed with tracrRNA (nucleotides 23-89) and crRNAsp4 (500 nM final concentration, 1:1). At indicated time points (min), 10 l aliquots of the cleavage reaction were quenched with formamide buffer containing 0.025% SDS and 5 mM EDTA, and analyzed by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis as in FIG. 10B . Sizes in nucleotides are indicated.
  • FIG. 19 (A) Mapping of protospacer 1 plasmid DNA cleavage. Cleavage products from FIG. 17A were analyzed by sequencing as in FIG. 10C . Note that the 3′ terminal A overhang (asterisk) is an artifact of the sequencing reaction. (B) Mapping of protospacer 4 oligonucleotide DNA cleavage. Cleavage products from FIG. 17C were analyzed by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis alongside 5′ endlabeled oligonucleotide size markers derived from the complementary and noncomplementary strands of the protospacer 4 duplex DNA. M, marker; P, cleavage product. Lanes 1-2: complementary strand.
  • Lanes 3-4 non-complementary strand. Fragment sizes in nucleotides are indicated.
  • C Schematic representations of tracrRNA, crRNA-sp1 and protospacer 1 DNA sequences (top) and tracrRNA, crRNAsp4 and protospacer 4 DNA sequences (bottom).
  • tracrRNA:crRNA forms a dual-RNA structure directed to complementary protospacer DNA through crRNA-protospacer DNA pairing. The regions of crRNA complementary to tracrRNA and the protospacer DNA are overlined and underlined, respectively.
  • cleavage sites in the complementary and noncomplementary DNA strands mapped in (A) (top) and (B) (bottom) are represented with arrows (A and B, complementary strand) and a black bar (B, noncomplementary strand) above the sequences, respectively.
  • FIG. 20 (A) Single turnover kinetics of Cas9 under different RNA pre-annealing and protein-RNA pre-incubation conditions.
  • Protospacer 2 plasmid DNA was incubated with either Cas9 pre-incubated with pre-annealed tracrRNA:crRNA-sp2 ( ⁇ ), Cas9 not pre-incubated with pre-annealed tracrRNA:crRNA-sp2 (•), Cas9 pre-incubated with not pre-annealed tracrRNA and crRNA-sp2 ( ⁇ ) or Cas9 not pre-incubated with not pre-annealed RNAs ( ⁇ ).
  • the cleavage activity was monitored in a time-dependent manner and analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis followed by ethidium bromide staining. The average percentage of cleavage from three independent experiments is plotted against the time (min) and fitted with a nonlinear regression. The calculated cleavage rates (k obs ) are shown in the table. The results suggest that the binding of Cas9 to the RNAs is not rate-limiting under the conditions tested. Plasmid forms are indicated. The obtained k obs values are comparable to those of restriction endonucleases which are typically of the order of 1-10 per min (45-47). (B) Cas9 is a multiple turnover endonuclease.
  • Cas9 loaded with duplexed tracrRNA:crRNA-sp2 (1 nM, 1:1:1—indicated with gray line on the graph) was incubated with a 5-fold excess of native protospacer 2 plasmid DNA. Cleavage was monitored by withdrawing samples from the reaction at defined time intervals (0 to 120 min) followed by agarose gel electrophoresis analysis (top) and determination of cleavage product amount (nM) (bottom). Standard deviations of three independent experiments are indicated. In the time interval investigated, 1 nM Cas9 was able to cleave ⁇ 2.5 nM plasmid DNA.
  • Cas9 contains domains homologous to both HNH and RuvC endonucleases ( FIG. 11A and FIG. 3 ) (21-23, 27, 28).
  • FIG. 11A and FIG. 3 21-23, 27, 28.
  • Incubation of these variant Cas9 proteins with native plasmid DNA showed that dual-RNA—guided mutant Cas9 proteins yielded nicked open circular plasmids, whereas the WT Cas9 protein-tracrRNA:crRNA complex produced a linear DNA product ( FIGS. 10A and 11A and FIGS. 17A and 25A ).
  • FIG. 11(A) (Top) Schematic representation of Cas9 domain structure showing the positions of domain mutations. D10A, Asp10 ⁇ Ala10; H840A; His840 ⁇ Ala840. Complexes of WT or nuclease mutant Cas9 proteins with tracrRNA: crRNA-sp2 were assayed for endonuclease activity as in FIG. 10A . (B) Complexes of WT Cas9 or nuclease domain mutants with tracrRNA and crRNA-sp2 were tested for activity as in FIG. 10B .
  • FIG. 3 The amino-acid sequence of Cas9 from S. pyogenes (SEQ ID NO:8) is represented. Cas9/Csn1 proteins from various diverse species have 2 domains that include motifs homologous to both HNH and RuvC endonucleases.
  • Motifs 1-4 motif numbers are marked on left side of sequence
  • the three predicted RuvC-like motifs (1, 2, 4) and the predicted HNH motif (3) are overlined.
  • Residues Asp10 and His840, which were substituted by Ala in this study are highlighted by an asterisk above the sequence. Underlined residues are highly conserved among Cas9 proteins from different species.
  • FIG. 21 Protospacer DNA cleavage by cognate tracrRNA:crRNA-directed Cas9 mutants containing mutations in the HNH or RuvC-like domain.
  • A Protospacer 1 plasmid DNA cleavage. The experiment was performed as in FIG. 11A . Plasmid DNA conformations and sizes in base pairs are indicated.
  • B Protospacer 4 oligonucleotide DNA cleavage. The experiment was performed as in FIG. 11B . Sizes in nucleotides are indicated.
  • tracrRNA might be required for target DNA binding and/or to stimulate the nuclease activity of Cas9 downstream of target recognition.
  • electrophoretic mobility shift assay to monitor target DNA binding by catalytically inactive Cas9 in the presence or absence of crRNA and/or tracrRNA.
  • Addition of tracrRNA substantially enhanced target DNA binding by Cas9, whereas we observed little specific DNA binding with Cas9 alone or Cas9-crRNA ( FIG. 22 ). This indicates that tracrRNA is required for target DNA recognition, possibly by properly orienting the crRNA for interaction with the complementary strand of target DNA.
  • the predicted tracrRNA:crRNA secondary structure includes base pairing between the 22 nucleotides at the 3′ terminus of the crRNA and a segment near the 5′ end of the mature tracrRNA ( FIG. 10E ). This interaction creates a structure in which the 5′-terminal 20 nucleotides of the crRNA, which vary in sequence in different crRNAs, are available for target DNA binding. The bulk of the tracrRNA downstream of the crRNA base pairing region is free to form additional RNA structure(s) and/or to interact with Cas9 or the target DNA site.
  • Cas9-tracrRNA:crRNA complexes reconstituted using full-length mature (42-nucleotide) crRNA and various truncated forms of tracrRNA lacking sequences at their 5′ or 3′ ends. These complexes were tested for cleavage using a short target dsDNA.
  • a substantially truncated version of the tracrRNA retaining nucleotides 23 to 48 of the native sequence was capable of supporting robust dual-RNA—guided Cas9-catalyzed DNA cleavage ( FIGS. 12 , A and C, and FIGS. 23 , A and B).
  • thermophilus in vivo 27, 29.
  • the plasmid maintenance and cleavage results hint at the existence of a “seed” region located at the 3′ end of the protospacer sequence that is crucial for the interaction with crRNA and subsequent cleavage by Cas9.
  • Cas9 enhanced complementary DNA strand hybridization to the crRNA; this enhancement was the strongest in the 3′-terminal region of the crRNA targeting sequence ( FIG. 25A-C ).
  • FIG. 12 (A) Cas9-tracrRNA: crRNA complexes were reconstituted using 42-nucleotide crRNA-sp2 and truncated tracrRNA constructs and were assayed for cleavage activity as in FIG. 10B . (B) Cas9 programmed with full-length tracrRNA and crRNA-sp2 truncations was assayed for activity as in (A). (C) Minimal regions of tracrRNA and crRNA capable of guiding Cas9-mediated DNA cleavage (shaded region). (D) Plasmids containing WT or mutant protospacer 2 sequences with indicated point mutations were cleaved in vitro by programmed Cas9 as in FIG.
  • FIG. 22 Electrophoretic mobility shift assays were performed using protospacer 4 target DNA duplex and Cas9 (containing nuclease domain inactivating mutations D10A and H840) alone or in the presence of crRNA-sp4, tracrRNA (75 nt), or both.
  • the target DNA duplex was radiolabeled at both 5′ ends.
  • FIG. 23 A fragment of tracrRNA encompassing a part of the crRNA paired region and a portion of the downstream region is sufficient to direct cleavage of protospacer oligonucleotide DNA by Cas9.
  • A Protospacer 1 oligonucleotide DNA cleavage and
  • B Protospacer 4 oligonucleotide DNA cleavage by Cas9 guided with a mature cognate crRNA and various tracrRNA fragments.
  • A, B Sizes in nucleotides are indicated.
  • FIG. 24 Like Cas9 from S. pyogenes , the closely related Cas9 orthologs from the Gram-positive bacteria L. innocua and S. thermophilus cleave protospacer DNA when targeted by tracrRNA:crRNA from S. pyogenes . However, under the same conditions, DNA cleavage by the less closely related Cas9 orthologs from the Gramnegative bacteria C. jejuni and N. meningitidis is not observed.
  • Spy, S. pyogenes SF370 Accession Number NC — 002737
  • Sth S. thermophilus LMD-9 (STER — 1477 Cas9 ortholog; Accession Number NC — 008532); Lin, L.
  • the dual-hybrid RNA duplexes consist of species specific tracrRNA and a heterologous crRNA.
  • the heterologous crRNA sequence was engineered to contain S. pyogenes DNA-targeting sp2 sequence at the 5′ end fused to L. innocua or N. meningitidis tracrRNA-binding repeat sequence at the 3′ end.
  • Cas9 orthologs from S. thermophilus and L. innocua but not from N. meningitidis or C. jejuni , can be guided by S.
  • N. meningitidis and L. innocua Cas9 orthologs cleave protospacer 2 plasmid DNA when guided by the cognate hybrid tracrRNA:crRNA-sp2.
  • 5′-end radioactively labeled complementary strand oligonucleotide (10 nM) pre-annealed with unlabeled noncomplementary strand oligonucleotide (protospacer 1) (10 nM) (left) or 5′-end radioactively labeled noncomplementary strand oligonucleotide (10 nM) pre-annealed with unlabeled complementary strand oligonucleotide (10 nM) (right) (protospacer 1) was subjected to cleavage by various Cas9 orthologs (500 nM) guided by tracrRNA:crRNA-sp1 duplex from S. pyogenes (500 nM, 1:1).
  • Cas9 orthologs from S. thermophilus and L. innocua , but not from N. meningitidis or C. jejuni can be guided by S. pyogenes cognate dual-RNA to cleave the protospacer oligonucleotide DNA, albeit with decreased efficiency. Note that the cleavage site on the complementary DNA strand is identical for all three orthologs. Cleavage of the noncomplementary strand occurs at distinct positions.
  • C Amino acid sequence identity of Cas9 orthologs. S. pyogenes, S. thermophilus and L. innocua Cas9 orthologs share high percentage of amino acid identity. In contrast, the C. jejuni and N.
  • meningitidis Cas9 proteins differ in sequence and length ( ⁇ 300-400 amino acids shorter).
  • D Co-foldings of engineered species-specific heterologous crRNA sequences with the corresponding tracrRNA orthologs from S. pyogenes (experimentally confirmed, (4)), L. innocua (predicted) or N. meningitidis (predicted). tracrRNAs; crRNA spacer 2 fragments; and crRNA repeat fragments are traced and labeled.
  • L. innocua and S. pyogenes hybrid tracrRNA:crRNA-sp2 duplexes share very similar structural characteristics, albeit distinct from the N. meningitidis hybrid tracrRNA:crRNA.
  • FIG. 25 A series of 8-nucleotide DNA probes complementary to regions in the crRNA encompassing the DNA-targeting region and tracrRNA-binding region were analyzed for their ability to hybridize to the crRNA in the context of a tracrRNA:crRNA duplex and the Cas9-tracrRNA:crRNA ternary complex.
  • A Schematic representation of the sequences of DNA probes used in the assay and their binding sites in crRNA-sp4.
  • B-C Electrophoretic mobility shift assays of target DNA probes with tracrRNA:crRNA-sp4 or Cas9-tracrRNA:crRNA-sp4. The tracrRNA(15-89) construct was used in the experiment. Binding of the duplexes or complexes to target oligonucleotide DNAs was analyzed on a 16% native polyacrylamide gel and visualized by phosphorimaging.
  • thermophilus (27).
  • the motif is also essential for in vitro protospacer plasmid cleavage by tracrRNA:crRNA-guided Cas9 ( FIG. 26B ).
  • tracrRNA:crRNA-guided Cas9 FIG. 26B .
  • FIG. 13 (A) Dual RNA-programmed Cas9 was tested for activity as in FIG. 10B . WT and mutant PAM sequences in target DNAs are indicated with lines. (B) Protospacer 4 target DNA duplexes (labeled at both 5′ ends) containing WT and mutant PAM motifs were incubated with Cas9 programmed with tracrRNA:crRNA-sp4 (nucleotides 23 to 89). At the indicated time points (in minutes), aliquots of the cleavage reaction were taken and analyzed as in FIG. 10B .
  • Electrophoretic mobility shift assays were performed using RNA-programmed Cas9 (D10A/H840A) and protospacer 4 target DNA duplexes [same as in (B)] containing WT and mutated PAM motifs.
  • the Cas9 (D10A/H840A)—RNA complex was titrated from 100 pM to 1 mM.
  • FIG. 26 (A) Mutations of the PAM sequence in protospacer 2 plasmid DNA abolish interference of plasmid maintenance by the Type II CRISPR/Cas system in bacterial cells. Wild-type protospacer 2 plasmids with a functional or mutated PAM were transformed into wild-type (strain SF370, also named EC904) and pre-crRNA-deficient mutant (EC1479) S. pyogenes as in FIG. 12D . PAM mutations are not tolerated by the Type II CRISPR/Cas system in vivo. The mean values and standard deviations of three biological replicates are shown.
  • Wild-type protospacer 4 plasmids with a functional or mutated PAM were cleaved with Cas9 programmed with tracrRNA and crRNA-sp2.
  • the cleavage reactions were carried out in the presence of the XmnI restriction endonuclease to visualize the Cas9 cleavage products as two fragments (1880 and ⁇ 800 bp). Fragment sizes in base pairs are indicated.
  • Cas9 can be Programmed with a Single Chimeric RNA
  • FIGS. 10E and 12C Examination of the likely secondary structure of the tracrRNA:crRNA duplex ( FIGS. 10E and 12C ) suggested the possibility that the features required for site-specific Cas9-catalyzed DNA cleavage could be captured in a single chimeric RNA.
  • the tracrRNA:crRNA target-selection mechanism works efficiently in nature, the possibility of a single RNA-guided Cas9 is appealing due to its potential utility for programmed DNA cleavage and genome editing ( FIG. 1A-B ).
  • This single transcript effectively fuses the 3′ end of crRNA to the 5′ end of tracrRNA, thereby mimicking the dual-RNA structure required to guide site-specific DNA cleavage by Cas9.
  • cleavage assays using plasmid DNA we observed that the longer chimeric RNA was able to guide Cas9-catalyzed DNA cleavage in a manner similar to that observed for the truncated tracrRNA:crRNA duplex ( FIG. 14A and FIGS. 27 , A and C).
  • the shorter chimeric RNA did not work efficiently in this assay, confirming that nucleotides that are 5 to 12 positions beyond the tracrRNA:crRNA base-pairing interaction are important for efficient Cas9 binding and/or target recognition.
  • a DNA-targeting RNA comprises a single stranded “DNA-targeting segment” and a “protein-binding segment,” which comprises a stretch of double stranded RNA.
  • a DNA-targeting RNA can comprise two separate RNA molecules (referred to as a “double-molecule” or “two-molecule” DNA-targeting RNA).
  • a double-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises a “targeter-RNA” and an “activator-RNA.”
  • a DNA-targeting RNA can comprise a single RNA molecule (referred to as a “single-molecule” DNA-targeting RNA).
  • a single-molecule DNA-targeting RNA comprises “linker nucleotides.”
  • FIG. 14 A plasmid harboring protospacer 4 target sequence and a WT PAM was subjected to cleavage by Cas9 programmed with tracrRNA(4-89):crRNA-sp4 duplex or in vitro—transcribed chimeric RNAs constructed by joining the 3′ end of crRNA to the 5′ end of tracrRNA with a GAAA tetraloop. Cleavage reactions were analyzed by restriction mapping with XmnI. Sequences of chimeric RNAs A and B are shown with DNA-targeting (underline), crRNA repeat-derived sequences (overlined), and tracrRNA-derived (dashed underlined) sequences.
  • FIG. 10B Protospacer 4 DNA duplex cleavage reactions were performed as in FIG. 10B .
  • C Five chimeric RNAs designed to target the GFP gene were used to program Cas9 to cleave a GFP gene-containing plasmid. Plasmid cleavage reactions were performed as in FIG. 12E , except that the plasmid DNA was restriction mapped with AvrII after Cas9 cleavage.
  • FIG. 27 A single chimeric RNA guides Cas9-catalyzed cleavage of cognate protospacer plasmid DNA (protospacer 1 and protospacer 2). The cleavage reactions were carried out in the presence of the XmnI restriction endonuclease to visualize the Cas9 cleavage products as two fragments ( ⁇ 1880 and ⁇ 800 bp). Fragment sizes in base pairs are indicated.
  • a single chimeric RNA guides Cas9-catalyzed cleavage of cognate protospacer oligonucleotide DNA (protospacer 1 and protospacer 2). Fragment sizes in nucleotides are indicated.
  • FIG. 28 (A) Schematic representation of the GFP expression plasmid pCFJ127. The targeted portion of the GFP open reading frame is indicated with a black arrowhead. (B) Close-up of the sequence of the targeted region. Sequences targeted by the chimeric RNAs are shown with gray bars. PAM dinucleotides are boxed. A unique SalI restriction site is located 60 bp upstream of the target locus. (C) Left: Target DNA sequences are shown together with their adjacent PAM motifs. Right: Sequences of the chimeric guide RNAs. (D) pCFJ127 was cleaved by Cas9 programmed with chimeric RNAs GFP1-5, as indicated. The plasmid was additionally digested with SalI and the reactions were analyzed by electrophoresis on a 3% agarose gel and visualized by staining with SYBR Safe.

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